Knowledge For The Outdoors
(A Survival Skills Manual)
By Gary Kraus
E-book version
Copyright 2011 Gary Kraus
Smashword Edition
This ebook is licensed for your personal enjoyment only. This ebook may not be re-sold or given away to other people. If you would like to share this book with another person, please purchase an additional copy for each recipient. If you’re reading this book and did not purchase it, or it was not purchased for your use only, then please return toSmashwords.com and purchase your own copy. Thank you for respecting the hard work of this author.
The information in this book has been extrapolated from extensive personal experience and a variety of resources, not the least of which are books listed in the bibliography. Some of the information and ideas that have been incorporated into this work, though not in their original form, are referenced at the end of the appropriate chapters.
Table of Contents
Chapter 1 – Arrow Construction
Chapter 10 – Direction Finding
Chapter 15 – Food Gathering, Preparation, and Preservation
Chapter 16 – Knots and Lashing
Chapter 19 – Psychology of Survival
Chapter 29 – Weather Forecasting
Bibliography and Recommended Reading
Preface
Each year, an increasing number of people are discovering the beauty, excitement, and relaxation of the outdoors. There are numerous reasons for this movement. Some describe their experience as getting back to nature, while others are sports enthusiasts pursuing activities ranging from hiking to snowboarding. But whatever their reasons might be, people are spending more time in a variety of wilderness settings.
As is the case with many children, my first experience in the outdoors was through family camping trips. When I was older and discovered hiking and backpacking, my interest began to expand to the area of extended outdoor living. My quest for knowledge about how to live in the outdoors was far ranging. Since there were few outdoor schools at the time (none that I knew of), I began an extensive search of library and bookstore shelves. I read the Lewis and Clark journals, Thoreau’s Walden, accounts about aboriginal life, and all of the contemporary works on outdoor living and survival I could find. I spent weeks and months at a time in the woods experimenting and applying the information I had discovered. As my own library and experience grew, it became apparent that there was a valuable core of information that could be compiled on a variety of outdoor skills. This book evolved as an attempt to present this information in a practical field handbook. It is hoped that these pages will increase your enjoyment of the outdoors.
Acknowledgments
Before the notion of writing a book had ever occurred to me, I remember reading about how writers struggle with creative inspiration, time, energy, and living expenses. So when I decided to write a book on outdoor skills I knew what the perils of authorship could be, and assured myself that these pitfalls would certainly not effect me. However, over the three years it has taken to complete this book, I have experienced all of the above pitfalls and some others that I never knew existed.
These few words are an attempt to thank all of those who in varying ways contributed to the completion of this book. They are the friends and family, too numerous to list, who were always there to offer help with the nonstop editing, art work, encouragement, and support that is so essential to a project such as this. Those who read and enjoy this book owe you their thanks, as do I.
Introduction
Very few people in today’s world have the knowledge or ability to satisfy all of their needs in a wilderness environment. However, we can still appreciate and learn from our aboriginal ancestors. Horace Kephart, in his book, Camping and Woodcraft, made the following observations in the early 1900’s.
There are natural signs in the forest, and on the plain, that we are ignorant of today, but that were well known to those of our ancestors who lived in nature. Such people, dependent from childhood upon close observation of their environment, but observation urged by entirely different motives from those of our naturalist, and directed toward different ends, would inevitably acquire a woodland lore different from ours, but quite as thorough in its own way. That they should develop keen perceptive faculties is no more remarkable than that a carpenter should hit a nail instead of the thumb that steadies it. That they should notice and study signs that no modern hunter or scientist would bother their head about is a matter of course. Unquestionably we have lost many arts of woodcraft that were daily practiced by our ancestors of the stone age, just as we have lost their acquaintance with the habits of animals now extinct. Probably no one of the future will ever equal Jim Bridger as a trailer, and it is but natural to suppose that Bridger himself had superiors among the Native Americans from whom he learned his craft. It is a superficial judgment to rate as an old wives’ tale every story of exploits in the past that we cannot at present duplicate. However, we need not go to novelists to find out how such things were done. There is much pleasure to be gained in seeking to recover some of the lost arts of a primitive age, and some wisdom as well.
Although it may be difficult to attain the same level of outdoor expertise known to woodsmen of centuries past, it is not such a difficult thing to significantly expand your outdoor skills through observation, study, and experience.
Chapter 1 - Arrow Construction
Collection
♦A limb, bush, or
shoot can be a possible candidate for an arrow shaft. Choose shoots
that grow straight up. Shoots that are leaning over may appear
straight, but the growth of their grain is affected by gravity. Seek
crowded stands of shoots in the shade as crowded shoots must reach
high for sunlight.
♦Shaft
length should be matched to the bow and the archer. A finished arrow
is generally about 30" long. However, some fishing arrows are
several feet long and extend into the water before being shot. Cut a
potential shaft 4 – 6" longer than desired to allow room to
work the ends.
♦Shaft
diameter with the bark on should be approximately the size of your
little finger, but diameter ultimately depends on the density of the
wood. Density determines weight, and arrows should be weighted to the
bow. The higher the bow’s draw weight, the stiffer the arrow shaft
needs to be. Potential shafts may taper from end to end or may be the
same diameter throughout.
♦Collect
several shafts at a time if possible. Store green or partially
seasoned shafts out of direct sunlight and in a dry place to help
eliminate cracks and splits. Bundle shafts around a straight,
seasoned piece of wood, and hang. Never store shafts or finished
arrows leaning up (they tend to warp) or on the ground (they tend to
collect moisture).
Preparation
♦To increase the
accuracy of arrows, work several shafts through the individual
steps at the same time so they will be matched.
♦Peel
freshly cut shoots. After peeling, bundle and cure for 2 – 8 weeks.
Shafts cure quickly in a low humidity, high temperature environment,
or with the controlled use of man–made heat (e.g. hot ashes in the
bottom of a fire pit).
♦Begin
straightening a shaft immediately after it is cut, and continue the
straightening process every day until the shaft remains straight. At
this point the wood should feel dryer, lighter and stiffer. The
straightening process begins in the middle of a shaft, and works
toward each end. Direct heat (a flame or heated rock) can be
carefully applied to facilitate straightening, or apply about 5
minutes of steam to particularly stubborn bends. After heating,
hyperextend the shaft and hold it in position until cool. Heat may be
applied through friction by rubbing an area vigorously with an object
such as an antler. Rub the concave part of the shaft and then apply
pressure to straighten the bend. Also, wet bark can be wrapped around
the crooked area and heated with a hot stone. Hot oil can be used to
correct bends but sinew will not adhere to oiled areas. If you feel
or hear a shaft crack or splinter while straightening, it should not
be used. Periodic straightening will be necessary for the life of a
primitive arrow.
♦There
are several ways to determine if the arrow is straight: 1) sight down
the shaft 2) lay the shaft up against a reliable straight edge 3)
roll the shaft on a reliably flat surface 4) with both ends of the
shaft slightly sharpened, spin the shaft on one end and then the
other. If any wobble is seen or felt then additional straightening is
needed
♦Do
not carve arrows but scrape them to the desired diameter. Careful
scraping may avoid wash–boarding (ripples in the wood). The
diameter of a shaft may be parallel (the same diameter throughout),
or tapered toward one end or the other. A less common taper is from
the center out toward both ends. If a parallel diameter is desired,
the diameter may be monitored by pulling the shaft through a hole of
the correct size. Such a hole can be bored into a piece of bone,
wood, shell, stone, or metal.
♦Two
pieces of soft stone, with grooves in each piece, may be used to
smooth a shaft. Pull the shaft back and forth between the two pieces
of stone.
Nock
♦Filing or sawing
is the preferred method of preparing a nock, as cutting may split the
shaft.
♦A
nock can be made by cutting the arrow shaft with a little larger
diameter at the nock end, and working the shaft down to the finished
size. A nock can also be made by cutting a shaft with a nock end that
has a small branch coming off of it. A piece of this small branch can
be left as reinforcing for the nock. All arrow shafts do not need
additional reinforcement in the nock area. (Fig. 1)
♦The
nock may be abraded into the shaft either before or after the
fletchings have been attached. Align the nock properly with the
fletchings. (Fig. 2)
Fletching
♦Fletching may be
made from pine needles, leaves, feathers, or similar
materials.
♦Strands
of sinew or artificial sinew (a waxed, multiply nylon), or any thin,
strong cordage can be used to attach fletching to an arrow shaft. The
cordage should be wound neatly and tightly. (see Cordage)
♦In
most cases, feathers 2 – 3” long and 1/2” wide are sufficient.
Shorter, wider feathers produce slower flight, shorter range, and
fewer lost arrows. Longer, narrower feathers increase range and speed
but lessen stability. Shots of only a few feet, or fishing arrows
which extend into the water, need not be fletched. Arrows fletched
with tail feathers tend to fly flat because these feathers are
straight. The curve in wing feathers tends to make arrows spiral
in flight. For the best stability and accuracy, use feathers from the
same wing, and use the split feathers from the same side of each
whole feather. (Fig. 3
♦A
whole, unsplit tail feather can be mounted on a shaft to form two
fletchings, or try using two unsplit feathers to form four
fletchings. This hasty method saves time, but is not as effective as
the technique above. (Fig. 4)
♦To
aid in splitting a feather, shave down the quill on the top and
bottom of the feather. A feather can be straightened by passing it
over a heated rock, which also makes it easier to split the midrib
accurately. To split the feather, repeatedly run your knife down the
groove on the underside. (The quill is rounded on the top of the
feather.) After the feather has been split, scrape the entire length
of the quill until it is smooth. To aid in this process hold the
feather tautly between your teeth and the fingers of one hand, while
the other hand uses a knife to scrape the quill. Now cut the feather
to the desired length, leaving enough quill at each end to lash onto
the shaft (about 1”). Another method for scraping the quill is to
hold the feather between two thin pieces of wood to protect the
feathers while you sand or scrape the split surface of the quill.
(Fig. 5)
♦Two
Methods of Attaching Feathers
♦The
feathers are correctly positioned on the shaft, and temporarily held
in place with thin twine. The feathers at the nock end are lashed in
place first. The wrap on the quills at the nock end doubles as
reinforcement for the nock. However, do not over–wrap the nock.
When the feathers are secured at the nock, remove the temporary
binding if it was used and apply glue along the quills if desired
(the glue aids in lashing and holding the feathers against the
shaft). Next dampen the feathers (moistening the feathers during the
mounting process will shrink and tighten them in place), pull the
unattached end of the feathers tight, and lash the quills to the
forward location on the shaft. Continue down the quill and onto the
shaft. This ensures that the quill tips are well covered so they will
not gouge your hand on their way off the bow. (see Fig. 3)
♦The
second method begins by lashing the front of the an upside–down
feather to the shaft at the forward location, with the rear of the
feather toward the point end of the shaft. (This method avoids some
of the danger of the exposed quill sticking in your hand when the
arrow is shot.) Next, apply glue along the quills if desired, dampen
the feathers, bend them over into their correct position (this will
double the quill over on itself) and lash the quills at the nock. The
distance from the end of the feathers to the nock is whatever it
takes to clear the feathers with your fingers when you grip the arrow
to shoot. (This technique may be applied in reverse by beginning at
the nock end of the arrow, and attaching the rear of the feathers in
their upside–down position. The feathers are then bent forward into
their correct position, which also doubles the quills over on
themselves at the nock.) Frayed feathers may be brought back into
line by steaming.
Points
♦Point size and
design are determined by experience and personal preference. Narrow,
penetrating points are often the choice for lighter draw weight
hunting bows. Prepare an arrowhead from stone (see Flintknapping),
bone, wood, antler, shell, or metal. Wooden points are usually carved
from a hardwood limb that has been split. Carve only on the rounded
side of the wood blank. The finished point is then fire hardened (see
Tools). (Fig. 6)
♦Like
the nock, the notch for the point should be abraded to avoid the
possibility of splitting the shaft.
♦The
arrowhead and nock may be aligned if desired, and pitch or glue can
be used to help hold the point in place. The point is lashed to the
end of the shaft, and the lashing continues a short way down the
shaft as reinforcement. This reinforcement is not necessary if there
is no attached point. (Fig 7)
♦The
ideal balance point for a finished arrow is slightly to the front of
center. Because of their weight, lightweight points are attached to
the thick end of a tapered shaft, and heavier points to the thin end.
♦The
end of an arrow shaft can be sharpened and fire hardened to create a
point. If the arrow shaft is tapered, sharpen the larger end for
better balance.
♦There are many types of arrow points,
and different points are used for different types of game:
mammals, birds and fish. (Fig. 8)
Additional Information
♦Completed arrows
can be burnished with tallow or oil to aid in preservation. The
absorption of the additives is improved by heating the shaft.
♦Check
arrows for straightness often. Improper storage, changes in weather,
moisture fluctuations, and even the stress of shooting an arrow can
affect its straightness.
Chapter 2 - Awareness
Introduction
♦Modern biofeedback distinguishes four levels of consciousness: 1) beta–modern man’s regularly existing state in which only the most prominent sensory information, like brightly lit areas or traffic noise, is noticed. 2) alpha–a condition of heightened awareness and learning potential attained through a relaxed, meditative state. Awareness is greatly enhanced by learning the ability to exist regularly in the alpha state. 3) theta–a state of consciousness facilitating the ability to sense things outside the realm of sensory perception. The ability to use this sixth sense in the outdoors is developed by spending time in the woods, and realizing that man exists on the same plane with other living things. 4) delta–out–of–body awareness.
Aspects of Awareness
♦Using Your Senses
♦Sight
♦Sight is modern man’s primary
sense. For the most part we use tunnel vision, focusing our eyes from
spot to spot, never seeing the “dead” spaces in our viewing area.
Using this method the shadowed and less prominent features are
overlooked.
♦When your arms are held out from your sides to the
point where you can barely see both hands, you are seeing with wide
angle vision. Use this expanded vision to pick up movement or
irregularities over a larger area of woods, and use your focused
vision for details. The trained eye alternates between scanning the
total landscape and scanning smaller sections of the immediate
environment. Do not allow preconceived mental images to minimize or
counteract perception. Relaxed, intermittent attention is
preferable to staring.
♦The untrained eye takes in complete,
whole objects, and then attends to detail to further define and
label. The trained eye looks for irregularities which do not fit
in the undisturbed scheme of things. These irregularities lead to the
discovery of the entirely hidden, obscured or fragmented object.
♦Remember to avoid falling into a rut by viewing anew each day the most familiar areas of your world. It is also useful to remember certain characteristics of sight such as: 1) a distant object may appear different depending on whether it is viewed with the light of dawn, daylight or twilight, and 2) objects observed across a broad, open expanse appear farther away than they actually are due to visual perception.
♦Hearing
♦Cup your hands behind your ears to
improve hearing.
♦Sound carries, so track into the wind to
maximize your chances of hearing an animal, while minimizing your
chances of being heard.
♦Learn to hear and interpret animal
sounds.
♦Touch
♦This sense may help in detecting
relative temperature, and aid in determining a recent time line
when analyzing tracks, bedding areas, scat, or campfires.
♦Touch
may also be used when comparing other qualities such as texture,
consistency, and adhesiveness.
♦Smell
♦Use your sense of smell to identify
nearby animals or dens, territorial markings or wallows (urine), dead
animals, smoke, insect repellent, etc.
♦Your sense of smell is
better on damp nights than on dry nights, since the particles of
moisture in the air help to hold a scent.
♦Increase your ability
to smell by dampening your nostrils.
♦Put your nose lower to
the ground as the air cools and descends, as scents tend to fall with
the air.
♦Taste
♦Taste is used primarily for food
discrimination, but works closely in conjunction with smell.
Note:
Through experience you will become aware of the effect that time of
day, weather, and seasons of the year have on your senses. For
example, darkness and wind each exert a different type of influence
on your hearing. Hearing sharpens with darkness to compensate for
decreased visibility, while the increased noise level from wind
hinders hearing.
♦Awareness through Intuition
♦Physical–Intuition
on a physical level is characterized by a strong body response
(headache, stomach tension, nausea, and hair raising on the back of
the neck) in situations where, apparently, nothing unusual is
happening.
♦Emotional–The
emotional level of intuition comes to consciousness through feelings
(“vibes”, instant like or dislike of someone or
something).
♦Mental–The
mental level of intuition is related to the realm of problem solving
in which flashes of inspiration occur. For example, after days, weeks
or months of trying to solve a problem the answer comes suddenly in a
flash.
♦Spiritual–The
spiritual level of intuition is pure intuition, independent of
sensation, feeling, or thought. There is no sensation of
separateness, but a blending of self with the moment. Spiritual
intuition is associated with the theta state of awareness. Animals
have developed this sixth sense to a high degree and can, for
example, know if you are hunting or merely observing them.
Note:
Physical, emotional, mental, and spiritual intuition often work
together.
Baseline Awareness
♦There is a discernible level of activity present in the woods at any particular time of day or night. You must be aware of this baseline activity level, which measures animal noise and movement, so you will know when the baseline has been disturbed. If you live in the woods for a period of time the baseline will become second nature to you, but each new time you enter the woods it is useful to sit quietly for a while until you are attuned to the current level. (Fig. 1) Once the baseline is established, pay attention to the rise and fall of this activity level, which is dependent upon new events which take place. When something changes in the forest the baseline is either raised or lowered depending on the event. The change echoes through the woods in all directions like the ripples from a pebble thrown on a quiet pond. This is the concentric rings phenomena. Every disturbance has a cause and effect which is radiated through the forest. For example, a bird calls out as a fox passes, alerting a squirrel.
Practicing Awareness
♦Awareness is a
skill like any other and must be practiced in order to attain a high
level of proficiency. Periodically practice heightened sensory
awareness by blindfolding yourself and going about your normal
camp activities. It may be helpful to have a partner who can shadow
you for safety. This activity will improve your balance, sensitivity
to the landscape, stalking ability, and ability to travel at night.
Pay specific attention to the other senses while blindfolded and you
will realize how much they are neglected due to your dependence on
sight. Time and distance are distorted with the loss of sight, but
touch, taste, smell, and the ability to hear are amplified.
♦Another
technique for elevating your sensory awareness is to find a “sit”
area where you can simply close your eyes and tune into the other
senses. The “sit” area can be any spot in the woods that feels
comfortable to you.
♦Heightened
awareness is necessary for mastering any outdoor skill, but the real
test of your awareness is your ability to interpret the activity that
is constantly taking place around you.
Chapter 3 –Backpacking
Traditional Backpacking
♦Introduction–There
are many ways to enjoy the outdoors. Backpacking allows a freedom of
movement with a degree of portable comfort.
♦Outfitting–The
length of your trip is dependent to a large extent on the choices you
make concerning food and equipment. These choices also determine the
amount of weight you will carry.
Backpacks
♦External Frame
♦Pack frame–capable of carrying heavy loads efficiently
♦The frame holds the bag and is often
contoured to fit the spine. Welded frame joints are the
strongest.
♦A padded hip belt transfers weight to the hips. It
should have a quick–release buckle.
♦The hip belt and shoulder
straps adjust to distribute weight.
♦A mesh backband stretched
across the frame, rests against the low back for comfort, and
increases ventilation.
♦Pack bag
♦Bags are usually constructed from
varying weights of cotton or nylon. They are often treated for
weather protection, and some offer a rain cover.
♦Most packs
will not be 100% waterproof.
♦Bags may be top– or
front–loading, and have side, front and/or interior pockets.
♦The
main compartment may have a removable divider.
♦Choosing pack size
♦Frame size and torso size should be
compatible.
♦Choose the load capacity based on personal
needs.
♦Test the pack in the store with at least 20 lbs. in the
pack.
♦Internal Frame
♦The pack frame sits close to your back for stability, but is not as weight–efficient as an external frame pack.
♦The pack stays may be single or
double, internal or external, and are usually bent to fit your
back.
♦The hip belt and shoulder straps allow load adjustment
between hips and shoulders.
♦A lumbar pad adds comfort.
♦Pack bag and size considerations are the same as for an external frame pack.
♦Pack Loading
♦The
average person can carry 25% of their body weight comfortably.
♦Carry
as little as your experience, necessity, and comfort zone
require.
♦Down–size
where possible.
♦Heavier
items are usually carried more efficiently toward the top.
Boots
♦Choosing a Boot
♦Research as much as you can, and/or go to an experienced boot supplier
♦Considerations
♦Hiking distances, weather, and
terrain
♦Your weight, and the weight of the load to be
carried
♦The weight of the boot is important, as one pound on
your feet equals about six pounds on your back
♦Buy a size that
is slightly large, as opposed to a size that is a little small. Boots
that are too small can cause serious problems for your feet
♦When
you try on boots, use the socks you will wear on the trail.
♦Construction
♦Uppers–leather,
nylon, Gore–Tex, or other synthetic
♦Soles–Vibram,
leather, rubber, polyurethane
♦Laces–nylon
is best, cotton is less durable
♦Variety of Boots
♦Trail
hikers–a light boot for one–day hikes with a day pack
♦Off–trail
hikers–a light/medium boot for 2–day trips with a light
pack
♦Backpacking–a
medium boot for trips of 2 to 4 days with a medium–weight
pack
♦Extended
trip–a heavy boot for 4 or more days with a heavy pack
♦Boot Care and Break–in
♦Waterproof
boots before wearing.
♦Wear
boots at home to break them in.
♦Boots
dried too close to an open fire may be damaged. Speed drying by
stuffing your boots with small, fire–warmed rocks placed inside
socks.
♦After
the trip, clean boots, reapply waterproofing, and stuff with
newspaper to absorb moisture and aid in drying.
♦Socks
♦Provide
warmth, insulation, padding, and skin comfort
♦85%
wool, 10% nylon, 5% spandex is a good blend.
♦Cotton
socks are not recommended for hiking as they offer no heat retention
and do not wear well when wet.
♦Always
have a dry pair of socks to sleep in on cold nights, or for an
emergency.
♦Foot Maintenance
♦Keep
toenails clipped.
♦Attend
to blisters.
♦Dry
feet periodically in wet weather.
♦Keep
your feet as clean as possible.
Clothing
♦Material
♦Wool is
warm when wet, and somewhat resistant to fire.
♦Silk
is warm, light, and easily dried.
♦Cotton
is comfortable, but absorbs moisture and is cold when wet.
♦Nylon
is strong, durable, and quick–drying.
♦Polypropylene
wicks moisture away from body and dries quickly.
♦Fiberpile
insulates well and is half the weight of wool, but it burns
easily.
♦Gore–Tex
is waterproof, breathable if the activity level is low, and
expensive.
♦Down
is light and warm only when dry.
♦Layering in Cold Weather
♦By
layering your clothes you can obtain maximum heat retention. Air is
trapped and warmed between the layers
♦Proper
layering also prevents overheating with ventilation adjustments at
the head, neck, underarms, waist, wrists, hands, and ankles. Shirts
and jackets that button or zip in the front offer the most
flexibility.
♦The Layers
♦Long underwear
♦Inner
layer–shirts, vest, pants, socks
♦Outer layer–jacket or
coat, hat, gloves
♦Shell layer–jacket, pants, poncho
(windproof, waterproof)
♦Essential Clothing
♦Shoes,
socks (wool, 2 pair), shorts (nylon), pants (wool), belt
♦Undershirt
(short sleeve, polypropylene), shirt (long sleeve, wool)
♦Vest,
hat, gloves, bandanna, rain gear
Note:
In winter, add long underwear and a jacket or coat.
Equipment
♦Essentials
♦Pack,
shelter (tent or tarp), sleeping bag or blanket, ground tarp, (and in
winter, a ground pad)
♦Waterproof
matches, knife, water container, water purification system, food,
cooking pot
♦Map
and compass, cordage, flashlight and batteries
♦Survival
and first aid kits (see Wilderness Safe)
♦Optional Equipment
♦Sun
block, insect repellent, toilet articles
♦Tent/tarp
repair kit, sewing kit, saw, shoe treatment
♦Fishing
tackle, eating utensils, note pad and pencil
Sleeping Bags
♦Down Fill
♦Compresses
well
♦Lighter
than synthetics for same degree of warmth
♦Insulates
better than other material
♦Bag
should have baffles to keep the down in position, but not stitched
all the way through
♦Expensive
♦Provides
little to no insulation when wet, and requires a long time to dry
♦Synthetic Fills Compared to Down
♦Bulkier
♦Heavier
♦Do
not insulate as well
♦Less
expensive
♦Retain
warmth when wet and dry quickly
♦Non–allergenic
♦Shape
♦Mummy–warmest
design, lightest, least amount of room
♦Modified
mummy–cut a little larger than mummy bag
♦Rectangular–roomiest,
heaviest, least warm
♦Design
♦Inner
and outer shell are usually made of nylon. Cotton is too prone to
absorb moisture and is heavy.
♦A
two–way zipper which extends around the bottom of the feet is
preferable, as it allows for variable ventilation.
♦A
baffle on the inner portion of the bag, along the zipper, reduces
draft.
♦Quality
bags will have a drawstring around the hood so that the bag can be
drawn around the head and face in cold weather, exposing only the
mouth.
♦Weight
is relative to temperature. A 30o
to 40o
F bag may be sufficient most of the year, and can be improved for
colder camping by adding an inner or outer shell.
♦Down,
as well as synthetically filled bags, are best cleaned by hand.
♦A
ground pad under your bag not only improves comfort, but is also
necessary for insulation in winter.
Shelter
♦Tents
♦Considerations
♦Price–relatively
expensive
♦Weight–backpacking tents vary between 2 1/2 and 9
lbs
♦Size–one–person, two–person, four–person,
etc.
♦Weather in which the tent will be used
♦The need for
ventilation/mosquito netting
♦A rain fly is often
required
♦Material–waterproof nylon, Gore–Tex,
canvas
♦Shape–dome, tunnel, asymmetrical,
rectangular
♦Type–bivy, family, double walled, backpacking,
free standing, etc.
♦Earth tones versus safety colors
♦Setup and care
♦Practice setting your tent up at
home before taking it on a trip.
♦Seal the seams for better
waterproofing
♦A ground cloth is usually necessary under the
tent floor to ensure dryness.
♦Tents should be set up and dried
out at home after returning from each trip.
♦Tarps
♦Considerations
♦Price–relatively
inexpensive
♦Weight–1 to 2 lbs
♦Size–dependent on
purpose of shelter and number of people
♦Weather in which the
tarp will be used
♦Material–waterproof nylon, Gore–Tex,
canvas
♦Grommets around the perimeter are useful for setup
♦Setup and care
♦Trees, shrubs, or poles are
required.
♦Some cordage is necessary.
♦Stakes, logs, or
rocks are used as anchors
♦Practice putting the tarp up in
various configurations before leaving home. Knowing a few basic knots
is helpful.
About the Author
Gary Kraus was born and raised in Florida, and has been a member of the Navy Seals as well as the Army Special Forces. He holds a Masters degree in Education, and has been associated with a wide variety of wilderness and survival schools. Over the years, Gary has spent extensive time in primitive living situations including a yearlong trek in the northwest wilderness. He is currently teaching outdoor skills and instructor training classes throughout the U.S.
Visit the web site
www.knowlwdgwfortheoutdoors.com
Contact Gary at:
Gary Kraus
702 Mangrove Avenue #310
Chico,
CA 95926