Glimpses of the Indian Economy: Ancient & Modern
A Collection of Articles by
Ratan Lal Basu
Copyright 2011 Ratan Lal Basu
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Contents
I. Diversification of Agriculture in Eastern & North-Eastern India & the Poor
II. Ancient India's Foreign Trade with East Asia
III. Ethical Basis of Exploitation of the Dalits in India
IV. Public Distribution System in India and Food Security
I. Diversification of Agriculture in Eastern & North-Eastern India & the Poor
The question of diversification of agriculture in India, especially in Eastern India, has become an important topic for discussion and debate in recent years. In fact, it is held by many economists and politicians that poverty and unemployment (both open and disguised) in the rural sector in Eastern India are the consequences of low production and productivity in agriculture. One common phrase, very often used by politico-economic announcements is: “Diversification in agriculture is the panacea for low productivity, poverty and unemployment in the agricultural and rural sector.” In most of the cases, however, the spokesmen for diversification hardly provide any definition of the term ‘diversification’.
In general sense, diversification of agriculture may mean:
i) Diversification between agriculture and allied activities like animal husbandry, fishing etc. and/or
ii) Diversification in cropping pattern
The second category may be subdivided into:
a) Diversification between food crops and non-food crops
b) Diversification between cereals and non-cereal food crops
c) Diversification between traditional crops and horticulture, and
d) Diversification between low productivity to high productivity crops
In this article we confine our study to the second category, viz. diversification in cropping pattern in the four senses mentioned above.
All the eleven States of the eastern zone are characterized by diversity of climatic, soil and topographical conditions allowing for cultivation of all varieties of crops. All these States are characterized by adequate water resources and fertile soil. There are no dearth of rainfall and bright sunshine in most of the States and all varieties of soil (alluvial, laterite, rocky etc.) are to be found in most of these States. In brief, nature has provided this region with ample opportunities for production of all conceivable varieties of agricultural crops. Agricultural production in this region on the whole is characterized by the predominance of traditional pre-capitalistic farming in tiny holdings. As a consequence, productivity is low and in most of the cases meant for subsistence of the poor farmers. Naturally, for most of the States, the dominant crops are cereals, especially rice (paddy), which is the major cereal food crop for this zone taken as a whole.
Under the present circumstances, there is wide scope for diversification of agricultural production of this region in all the four senses mentioned above. But we are to remember that, in a market-oriented economy as conceived under the New Economic Policy of 1991, direction of crop diversification ought to be guided by market forces, especially, demand conditions, mainly export demand. So, without expanding and sustainable export opportunities, substantial crop diversification is not possible simply depending on home demand. Secondly, from the supply side, crop diversification calls for adequate supply of inputs (seeds, fertilizers, pesticides, irrigation facilities etc.) and credit facilities. Taking for granted that all the favorable demand and supply criteria have been met, the question arises who are going to be the real beneficiaries of diversification, or more specifically, whether diversification is going to reduce poverty and unemployment in the rural sector of the eleven States of the eastern zone.
This article is going to take up this all important issue. But to start with, we are to take a brief glimpse of the ancient practice of crop-diversification as prescribed in the Arthasastra of Kautilya. This has a special significance for a seminar held at Patna. In fact, the first politically unified India (the Magadha Empire (beginning from the reign of Ajatasatru and culminating in the Mauryan Empire) had its capital in this city (then called Pataliputra) and the guiding principle of that Empire was the Arthasastra of Kautilya. Besides the excellent prescriptions in this text for crop-diversification to facilitate eco-friendly and sustainable agricultural development, we should also look into its opposite, the forced commercialization and diversification during British rule and its horrible consequences for the poor. This may serve as a caution to the blind adherents of the policy of agricultural diversification today.
Crop diversification in the Arthasastra
The Arthasastra of Kautilya prescribes crop-diversification on the basis of diversity of climatic, topographical and soil conditions, keeping in view the requirements of food, fodder and industrial raw materials, and the preservation of environment and ecology, especially, fertility of soil. Kautilya’s prescriptions are discussed in brief in the following.
How various crops are to be cultivated are described in detail in II/24 of the Arthasastra of Kautilya. Here Kautilya describes how different crops are to be planted according to the specificity of soil and weather conditions. Varieties of the same crops (depending on specific conditions) are also mentioned. On the whole agriculture, according to Kautilya, is to be eco-friendly and sustainable; and there should be a proper balance among different kinds of uses of scarce land.
All varieties of seeds are to be collected in proper time and preserved properly. To quote:
II/24/1: The Director of Agriculture, himself conversant with the practice of agriculture, water-divining and the science of rearing plants, or assisted by experts in these, should collect, in the proper seasons, seeds of all kinds of grains, flowers, fruits, vegetables, bulbous roots, roots, creeper fruits, flax, and cotton.
Crops are to be sown according to appropriateness of soils, climatic conditions etc. To quote:
II/24/2: He should cause them to be sown in land, suitable for each, which has been ploughed many times, through serfs, labourers and persons paying off their fines by personal labour.
II/24/11: In conformity with that, he should cause crops to be sown, requiring plenty of water or little water.
II/24/15: Or, the sowing of seeds (should be) in conformity with the season.
II/24/19: According to the amount of water (available) for the work, he should decide on wet crops, winter crops or summer crops.
II/24/22: (A region) where the foam strikes (the banks) is (suited) for creeper fruits, (regions on) the outskirts of overflows, for long pepper, grapes and sugarcanes, (those on) the borders of wells, for vegetables and roots, (those on) the borders of moist beds of lakes, for green grasses, ridges for plants reaped by cutting, (such as) perfume-plants, medicinal herbs, usira-grass, hribera, pindaluka and others.
II/24/23: And on lands suitable for each, he should raise plants that grow on dry lands and that grow in wet-lands.
The proper condition for growth of crops is described in the following slokas.
II/24/10: Where it rains distributing wind and sunshine properly and creating three (periods for the drying of) cowdung cakes, there the growth of crops is certain.
Kautilya describes the order of crops to be grown so as to maintain a balance in fertility of soil and ecology. To quote:
II/24/12: sali-rice, vrihi-rice, kodrava, sesamum, priyangu, udaraka and varaka are the first sowings.
II/24/13: mudga, masa and saimbya are the middle sowings.
II/24/14: Safflower, lentils, kulattha, barley, wheat, kalaya, linseed and mustard are the last sowings.
Kautilya also describes how seeds are to be prepared before sowing, and how crop saplings are to be properly maintained. To quote:
II/24/24: Soaking in the dew (by night) and drying in the heat (by day) for seven days and nights (is the treatment) in the case of seeds of grains, for three days and nights or five in the case of seeds of pulses, smearing at the cut with honey, ghee and pig’s fat, mixed with cowdung in the case of stalks that serve as seeds, (smearing) with honey and ghee in the case of bulbous roots, smearing with cowdung in the case of stone-like seeds, (and) in the case of trees, burning in the pit and fulfillment of the longing with cow-bones and cowdung at the proper time.
II/24/25: And when hey have sprouted, he should feed them with fresh acrid fish along with the milk of the snuhi-plant (Kangle 1986).
Crop diversification during British regime
Before the advent of the British in India, the country was divided into a large number of independent political units. The British invaded, subjugated and unified them to form the vast British Indian Empire. With the emergence of modern industries in Britain in course of the industrial revolution, India became the major source of raw materials for British industries. To fulfill this requirement, the British government undertook commercialization of agriculture in India so as to guide Indian agricultural production according to the requirements of British industries.
The process took various forms: tea and coffee plantations, indigo cultivation, cultivation of cotton and jute. Opening up of the Suez Canal and expansion of railways in India facilitated this process. As a matter of fact, the entire process of this commercialization was forced on the poor farmers, either by direct coercion as in case of indigo cultivation, or indirectly through British revenue administration. Although a class of native traders and money lenders (who co-operate with the British to accentuate the process of commercialization) was considerably benefited, the consequences for the poor were devastating. One of the most important causes of recurrent famines (in spite of food sufficiency), during the British Regime in India, was forceful commercialization (diversification) of agriculture (Bhattacharyya 1989).
Natural endowments and crop produced in the Eastern & North-Eastern States
All the eastern States in India are well endowed with adequate water resources, varieties of soils and diverse climatic conditions to facilitate production of all major categories of agricultural crops – cereal and non-cereal food crops, pulses, potatoes, fibers, spices, plantation crops, oil seeds, fruits, vegetable etc. However, depending on the demand conditions (which depends a good deal on food habits of the population in subsistence agriculture), and modes and methods of production, the major and overwhelmingly dominating crop in this region is rice (paddy). The existing cropping-patterns of the 11 eastern States are shown below (website-1).
Arunachal Pradesh
The agriculture of the State is characterized by hilly tracts and prevalence of Jhum cultivation.
Crops Produced: Cereals: Paddy, millet, maize; Fruits: Pineapple, orange, lemon, lichee, papaya, banana, peach, walnut, almond; Vegetables: Sweet potatoes, brinjal, pumpkin, cucumber; Spices: Ginger, chilies.
Assam
The State is characterized by existence of hilly tracts and alluvial valley, humid climate with hot and cold seasons and profuse rainfall – Jhum cultivation is still prevalent in some areas.
Crops Produced: Cereals: Paddy; Fibers: Jute, cotton; Plantations: Tea, cocoanut; Various Pulses and Oilseeds, potatoes, sugarcane; Fruits: Orange and other citrus fruits, banana, guava, pineapple, mango; All sorts of vegetables.
Bihar
Characterized by the juxtaposition of fertile North Ganga Plain and hilly South Ganga Plain – both hot and cold seasons with heavy rainfall.
Crops Produced: Cereals: Paddy, wheat, maize, barley; Fibers: Jute; various oilseeds, pulses and sugarcane; Fruits: Mango, lichee and other fruits; All types of vegetables.
Jharkhand
The State consists mainly of the Chhotanagpur plateau.
Crops Produced: Cereals: Paddy, wheat and maize; various pulses.
Manipur
The state consists of hills and valleys with plain lands – rains of both summer and winter are helpful for cultivation.
Crops Produced: Cereals: Wheat, maize; Pulses, potato; Fruits: Pineapple, orange, apricot, lemon, mango; all varieties of vegetables.
Meghalaya
The State consists of hills and plateaus – cold weather with heavy rainfall – only 10% of land is cultivable.
Crops Produced: Cereals: Paddy; Oilseeds and sugarcane; Fruits: Pineapple, orange, banana.
Mizoram
The State is endowed with hilly tracts and scattered plains with rich alluvial soil – cold and humid climate.
Crops Produced: Cereals: Paddy, maize; Spices: Ginger, turmeric, chilies, pepper, cinnamon, large cardamom; Plantations: tea, coffee, rubber; Oilseeds: Mustard, sesame; Fruits: Orange, banana, pineapple; various vegetables.
Nagaland
The State is characterized by hilly, rugged terrains with heavy rainfall, and prevalence of Jhum and terraced farming.
Crops Produced: Cereals: Paddy (in 85% of cultivable land), millet, maize
Plantations: Tea, coffee; different vegetables, pulses, oilseeds, sugarcane, spices and potato.
Orissa
The State contains coastal plains, mountainous regions, plateaus, rolling uplands and sub-montane region – hot summer and cold winter with adequate rainfall. With wide variation in climate and topography almost all varieties of crops are grown in the 31 agricultural zones of the State.
Crops Produced: Cereals: Paddy, maize, millet; Plantations: Tea, coffee, rubber, cocoanut; Fibers: Jute, cotton, mesta; various oilseeds and pulses, different vegetables; Ground nut and cashew nut; Sugarcane, tobacco and various fruits.
Tripura
The State consists of hills, dales and valleys with rich alluvial soil – hot and humid climate with adequate rainfall – with vast forest coverage, only 25% land area is cultivable.
Crops Produced: Cereals: Paddy, wheat; Jute, sugarcane, cocoanut and oilseeds
West Bengal
So far as agriculture is concerned, it is the most richly endowed State in the eastern zone. With vast fertile plains, adequate rainfall, wide variations in climate, soil and topography, the State is suitable for cultivation of all varieties of crops produced in the other States in the region. But still now the dominant crop is rice (paddy).
For all the 11 States of the eastern zone taken as a whole, paddy is the dominant crop, and methods of production are still based on traditional technologies. Excepting West Bengal, there has been very little application of modern technologies. On the other hand, natural endowments are conducive to production of all varieties of crops in the region. So, there is wide scope for diversification of crops in all the four senses. Now, let us have a glimpse of the progress of crop diversification in the two major States of the region, viz. Bihar and West Bengal.
Progress of crop diversification in Bihar and West Bengal
Bihar
In Bihar a few crops like Wheat, Arhar, Other Kharif, Pulses, Rapeseed and Mustard and Jute have gained prominence in the cropping pattern in 1999-2000 over the last 2 decades, whereas a few other crops like Rabi pulses, Mandua, Barley, Linseed have been marginalized in the cropping pattern. This also reveals a tendency of persistence in cropping pattern with the share of food grains still predominant in the cropping pattern. (Website-2).
West Bengal
Among the Eastern States, there have been most persistent efforts towards crop diversification in West Bengal in recent years.
In recent years in West Bengal, there has been a shift of area against rice, in favor of wheat, pulses, oilseeds, potato, jute, fruits, flowers and spices. (Economic Review, Govt. of W. B., 2004-05, PP.18-19, 24)
With persistent efforts of the Government of West Bengal, the process of diversification has been accelerated. At present the following policies have been adopted by the Department of Agriculture, Government of W.B
a) Increase land under horticulture.
b) Introduction of new varieties of crop diversification, including cultivation of pulses, oilseeds and tobacco.
c) Draw up block wise horticulture production plan. (Website-3).
The policies of the government of W.B. emphasizing rapid crop diversification, especially, in favor of horticulture, floriculture and other “high-valued” crops may, in course of time, be imitated by all other States in the eastern region, and so far as natural conditions are concerned, this is quite feasible. But the pertinent question in this regard is the consequences of such diversification for the poor. We are going to take up this issue in the next section of our study.
Consequences for the poor
Crop diversification in the eastern zone, according to present policy, has two major thrust areas:
i) From cereals to oilseeds and pulses
ii) From conventional crops to so-called ‘high-valued’ crops, especially horticulture and floriculture.
So far as the first aspect is concerned there is sufficient domestic excess demand to justify increase in production of oilseeds and pulses through increase in area and productivity (by transition from traditional to modern technologies).
As regards the second aspect, sustainability depends mainly on expanding foreign market. In this area agro-processing is an urgent necessity (assuming that all the expectations about rapidly expanding export market would be realized). In this area supply side calls for heavy investment for both production and processing. The latter also calls for technological up gradation with foreign technologies in most of the cases. Thus it is evident that diversification in this sense would emphasize the role of the big players including domestic large industrial houses as well as giant MNCs from the developed countries. The various policy announcements as given below substantiate this view.
In his special address at the seminar "Focus East - Promoting Food Processing in Bihar, Jharkhand, Orissa and West Bengal," the Union Minister of Food Processing Industries, Shri Subodh Kant Sahai lauded FICCI's efforts in this area, and suggested it to set up a special cell in FICCI to map the eastern states and draw up a road map. Sri Sahai said that the country should strive to increase its share of value addition in agricultural and processed products from 6% to 20% and eventually to 30%. The global export share would also go up from 1% to 3%. He, however, emphasized that exports could not grow without development of the wholesale sector.
In his welcome address, FICCI's eastern region council chairman Shri C.K. Dhanuka said that while the four eastern states together contributed approximately 20% of India's agricultural output, much of it remained untapped. "The eastern region can become a critical link in the global food value chain," he added. Shri Dhanuka also suggested a series of measures for the state governments to adopt, including providing incentives to promote public-private partnerships in the food processing sector, and creation of state-specific plans to attract both domestic and foreign investment (website-4).
In fact, the policies related to diversification of agriculture in India have opened up the opportunities for entry of the giant MNCs into the Indian market. Some of the giant MNCs taking entry into the Indian agricultural market are: Agre Evo (ProAgro), Aventis, Bayer Crop, Bejo Zaden, Cargill, Cyanamid, Dow, Hicks Muse Fuse Trust, Hoechst, Monsanto, Nickersen Zwaan, Novartis, Nunhems, Pioneer, Royal Sluis, Sun, Syngenta, Zeneca.
It is doubt if this process is going to benefit the poor.
References
Bhattacharyya, Dhires (1989): A Concise history of Indian Economy, Prentice-Hall of India Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi
Government of West Bengal: Economic Review, various issues
Kangle, R. P. (1986): Kautilya Arthasastra, Part-II [English translation], Motilal Banarasidass, Delhi. [In quotations, II/24/1 means Book-II, Chapter-24, Śloka-1 etc.]
Website-1: [http://www.webindia123.com/states/index.htm>
Website-2: <http://patna.bih.nic.in/html/croppingpatternofbihar.htm>
Website-3: <http://64.233.179.104/search?q=cache:sPVjYlJTe8oJ:agricoop.nic.in/Kharif2006/Kharif2006ppt/west%2520Bengal>
Website-4:
<http://www.ficci.com/ficci/media-room/speeches-presentations/2006/jan/30jan-food-kol-press.htm]>
II. Ancient India's Foreign Trade with East Asia
Introduction
The economic, cultural and political relation between India and East Asia, which developed through trade relations, may be traced back to the pre-historic age. This relation continued through the historic period and assumed new dimensions. Till the Christian era evidence of such trade are derived from discovery of Indian articles and use of Indian names in distant lands and mention of India’s trade with Suvarnabhumi, Suvarnadvipa, Javadvipa, Tamradvipa etc. in Buddhist Jatakas, Ramayana, Mahabharata, Puranas etc. Ancient Tamil poems mentioned ports like Barukachchha, Rovura, Kaviri-Pattinum etc.
During the Christian era, while Indians had to face powerful competition from Arab and Roman merchants in the West, the field practically lay open to them in the East. In the latter half of the first century A.D., the spirit of maritime adventure of India found its full scope in the South-East – Indonesia, Indo-China and Malaya Archipelago.
During the Gupta Era, there was a regular trade relation between Tamralipti and Ceylon, Indonesia and Indo-China. During the third decade of the sixth century A.D., there developed an inter-coastal trade route linking east coast of India with Ceylon, Indonesia and China. Since the 8th century A.D., India’s trade with East and South-East Asia started declining and in course of the next 300 years it became almost insignificant.
Pre-Christian Era
The sources of information for this period are very scanty. Most of the information are derived from archaeological evidence, and at times, inductions. Sometimes, we are to rely upon indirect evidence such as the discovery of Indian articles in distant lands or the use of Indian names for those articles.
Philological researches have established a connection between the Neolithic peoples of India and the primitive tribes that inhabited Indo-china, Malaya Peninsula and Indonesian islands. The German scholar Schmitz, e.g., holds that the languages of many Indian tribes belong to the same family of speech (called Austric) from which those of the peoples of Indo-china and Indonesia have been derived (Majumdar, Roychoudhury & Datta, 1980, PP. 14-15).
It may be presumed that from time immemorial the people of India had free and intimate intercourse with the outside world. Even in the dim pre-historic age, Neolithic people, as already mentioned, had relations with the Far East and there are good reasons to believe that they emigrated from India by large numbers, both by land and by sea, and got settled in Indo-China and Indonesian islands. In the succeeding age, while an advanced civilization flourished in the Indus Valley, there was undoubtedly a familiar intercourse with the countries by which India was surrounded on the north, east and west and the relation continued through the historic period (Ibid. P. 202).
There are mentions of India’s trade with Suvarnabhumi, Suvarnadvipa, Javadvipa, Tamradvipa etc. in Jatakas & other Buddhist texts, Ramayana, Mahabharata, Puranas, Kathasarit Sagara, Haribhamsa, Ramayana Manjari of Kshemendra, Mahabhasya of Patanjali etc. (Smith, V., 1974, PP. 185-188; Ghosal, U. N., 1957, P. 447). There are evidence of India’s foreign trade in ancient Tamil poems, which mention the names of ancient ports like Barukachchha, Rovura, Kaviri-Pattinum (the capital of the Cholas), Champa (modern Bhagalpur) etc. (Rhys Davis, 1962, PP. 189-190).
Buddhism was an important factor in developing India’s trade relations with East Asia during this period. Buddhism, chiefly in its Mahajana form, along with many aspects of Indian culture and tradition, was carried by courageous monks to the lands beyond the sea. It is highly significant that the earliest material evidence of contact between India and South-East Asia takes the form of Buddhist images (of the school of Amarāvati) which have been found in Thailand, Kampuchea, Sumatra and Java (Smith, op. cit. PP. 185-188).
The nature of the imports and exports are seldom specified. Gems of various kinds, muslins, the finer sorts of cloth, cutlery, armor, brocades, embroideries, rugs, perfumes, drugs, ivory works, gold, jewelry etc., were the main articles of trade (Majumdar, Roychoudhury & Datta, 1980, PP. 205-06).
Early Christian Era
While Indian traders had to face competition from powerful Arab and Roman merchants in the West, they were free from such hindrances in the East. Chinese writers mentioned that very large ships used to sail from the Chola ports in the latter half of the first century A.D. They also recorded the voyages of Indian merchants to Malaya and Cambodia in the third century A.D. Takkola, Tamalin, Javadvipa, Suvarnakuta and Suvarnabhumi are included among the places across the high seas visited by the Indian merchants. Ptolemy mentioned, as the places visited by Indian merchants, Golden Chersonese (Malaya Peninsula) and also described the island of Iabidios, i.e., the island of barley, as producing much gold and silver. Its capital, according to him, was called Argyre, i.e., the silver town. Contemporary and subsequent Greek, Indian and Arab writing testify that it was mainly the quest of gold that drew the Indian merchants across the sea to Indo-China and Indonesia (Ghosal, 1957, PP. 446-447).
The spirit of maritime adventure of India found its scope in the South-East. Across the Bay of Bengal, lay Indo-china and Malaya Archipelago. The Eastern Coast of India from the mouth of the Ganges to Cape Comorin (Kanya Kumari) was studded with ports. Some of these ports are mentioned in the famous book “Periplus of the Erethrean Sea”. The author refers to some of the far eastern countries as Chryse, i.e., the golden land. From the descriptions of this book, it could be inferred that there was a coasting voyage from Bengal to these regions. Ptolemy, who wrote in the 2nd century A.D., knew the names of important trading centers in Malaya Peninsula, and the islands of Java and Sumatra. Buddhist texts, written about the same period, give a long list of trading centers in the Far East, which agree fairly well with that of Ptolemy. These names are mostly in Sanskrit. Thus, by the 2nd century A.D., the Indians had developed important trade relations with the Far East. We learn from Ptolemy that there was a direct trade route from Palura (near Ganjam district of Orissa) across the sea to the Malaya Peninsula (Majumdar, Roychoudhuri & Datta, 1980, PP. 205-06).
Gupta Era (240-495 A.D.)
During the Gupta Era, there was all round prosperity of India and as a part of this, foreign trade also flourished. During this period Ceylon used to enjoy a central position for trade purposes. The ports of East and West Coasts of India were linked together through Ceylon. There was a regular commercial connection between Tamralipti (modern Tamluk in West Bengal) and Ceylon on the one hand, and Indonesia and Indo-China on the other (Mahajan, 1986, P. 467).
During this period ships plied between ports on Bay of Bengal and other Asian countries. Besides Tamralipti, the people of Kalinga and the Tamil states had also a great share in this traffic. There was also a regular commercial connection between the Eastern Coast of India and West Asia, Africa and Europe. The Chinese pilgrim Fa-hien, who came to India during the 5th century A.D., sailed from Tamralipti to Java via Ceylon, and again from Java to China in Indian ship.
Commodities traded, according to Cosmas in his Christian Topography written in 547 A.D. included spices (cinnamon, long pepper, white pepper, cardamom), spikenards, aromatics, fragrant trees, sesame logs, medicinal plants, sandalwood, asaphoetida, aloes, cloves, corals, pearls, raw silk, silk yarn, silk robes, ivory, musk, various textile products etc. (Majumdar, 1960, P. 455).
In fact, it is very difficult to distinguish exports from imports because, very often, the commodities imported into India from some countries were re-exported to other countries.
Post Gupta Era
The most important event in the history of Eastern and Southern Asia during this period was the development, by the 3rd decade of the 6th century, of an inter oceanic trade reaching from China through Indonesia and East Coast of India up to Ceylon, and extending there along the West Indian Coast to Persia, Arabia and Ethiopia. According to Cosmas, merchandise from China, Indonesia and South India were carried to Ceylon. Whence it was exported the Western Lands just mentioned and India had a fair share in this inter oceanic trade that linked East Asia with West Asia, Africa and Europe.
Ceylon used to play the intermediary role as it was much frequented by ships from all parts of India and East Asia on the one hand and from Persia, Ethiopia and other western lands on the other. The Chinese Buddhist pilgrims from Fa-hien downwards on their return journeys or both used the sea route from Tamralipti. Besides these overseas routes, a number of overland routes connected India and China (Majumdar, 1962, PP. 598-600).
The articles imported from South-East Asia were mainly silk, camphor, bees’ wax, cloves, sandalwood and cardamom. Spices were imported from Java and Sumatra. Chinese silk was also imported from this region. India used to import pearls, dry-ginger and tin from Ceylon. During this period Tamralipti was still the most important port of Bengal. The other important ports on the Eastern Coast were: Puri, Chiccaculi, Banpur, and Ramesvara. Important ports on the Western Coast were: Quilon, Mangalore, Thana, Sopara, Kambay, Sindan, Debal and Bhrigukachchha.
From the beginning of the 8th century A.D., the Arabs became the most dominant maritime power and Indian foreign trade to the West Asia, Africa and Rome were lost to them. The Arab and Chinese competition gradually led to shrinkage of India’s foreign trade with East and South-East Asia also and, in course of the next 300 years, it became almost insignificant. The decline of trade led to the decay of many towns and ports, e.g., Purana Quila (Delhi), Kausambi (near Allahabad), Mathura, Hastinapur (Meerut district), Rajghat (Varanasi), Chirand (Saran district), Vaisali etc. On account of the restricted market for Indian exports, artisans and merchants living in those towns and ports shifted to the countryside and took to cultivation (Mahajan, 1986, PP. 672-674).
Hindu kingdoms in East Asia
As a follow up of trade various Hindu kingdoms emerged in East Asia. To avoid misgivings, it should be pointed out that the term Hindu here is not referred to a specific religious group known by the same term, but in a wider sense to mean the philosophy and culture of ancient Hindustan that includes India, Bangladesh, Pakistan and parts of Afghanistan. In ancient times all people (whether Brahminical, Jainists or Buddhists) from Hindustan were known in East, West and South Asia as Hindus. The kingdoms I am going to mention here were mainly associated with Buddhist and Brahminical religious groups. From pre-historic times Hindustan had developed wide trade relations with all the East Asian countries and there was continuous flow of people, culture and religious ideas from Hindustan to these countries and in the process, several Hindu kingdoms sprang up in various parts of East Asia.
Champa (Vietnam)
Hindu kingdoms were established in Champa, the eastern coast of Indo-China, now known as Annam. Bhadra Varman, one of the early kings, ruled nearly over the whole of modern Annam (excluding Tonkin and Cochin-China), divided into three provinces known as Amaravati, Vijaya and Panduranga. Tonkin, the country immediately to the north, was peopled by Annamites, and formed a part of the Chinese Empire. The Hindu kings of Champa, anxious to extend their powers northwards, often came into conflict with the Chinese Empire and suffered invasions by the imperial troops, sometimes with disastrous consequences. Lateron, Annamites becoming independent and they were in constant hostilities with Champa.
Major kings of different dynasties were: Sambhu Varman, Satya Varman, Indra Varman, Hari Varman, Simha Varman etc. In 1190 A. D., Jaya Varman VII, the king of Kambuja, defeated Jaya-Indra Varman of Champa, took him captive and annexed Champa. Thereafter Champa regained independence after 30 year’s war, but in 1282, suffered great defeat by the Mongal Chief, Kubla Khan. Annamites gradually conquered Champa by the end of 15th century A.D. (Majumdar, 1960, P. 479)
Kambuja (Kampuchea)
According to Chinese chronicles, Fu-nan, the earliest Hindu kingdom in East Asia, was founded by the Brahmin, Kaundinya before the third century A.D. He was the first Emperor in Indo-China. Jaya Varman and Rudra Varman of the dynasty ruled during the sixth century.
Early in the seventh century, Kambuja, originally a vassal state of Fu-nan, conquered Fu-nan, became the leading power in the region and gave the name to the whole country. In the eighth century, the Sailendra king of Java conquered Kambuja, but it gained independence under Jaya Varman II who ruled from 802 to 854. The most powerful king after him was Yasa Varman who ruled from 889 to 908. The dynasty ruled till 1001 with political authority over Siam, Laos and probably Yunnan.
Surya Varman, founder of the next dynasty, established authority over northern Siam and invaded lower Burma. Surya Varman II, who constructed the famous Ankar Vat temple, ruled from 1113 to 1150. Jaya Varman VII, who ascended throne in 1181, made Champa a vassal state of Kambuja and conquered portions of lower Burma.
The kingdom declined during the 13th century because of Thai invasion (Ibid. PP. 480-481).
Brahmadesa (Myanmar)
The Hinduised Mon settlements in lower Burma were known collectively as Ramannadesa. They had a powerful kingdom in the seventh century A.D. To the north of the Mons, the Hinduised Pyus established a kingdom with Srikshetra as the capital. The Pyus occupied the Irawadi valley as early as the third century A.D. and continued as a great political power till the ninth century.
The Hinduised Mrammas poured into Burma in large numbers in the ninth and tenth centuries and founded an independent kingdom with Pagan as capital. Their first king Aniruddha ruled from 1044 to 1077 and was succeeded by two sons. The dynasty ruled till 1287. Thereafter, the Mongals occupied their kingdom. But Indian culture and tradition still persists in Myanmar (Ibid. PP. 484-488).
Java
According to Chinese chronicles, there were two Hindu kingdoms in the island of Java in the fifth century A. D. – Cho-po and Ho-lo-tan. Title of the kings of both these kingdoms was Varman.
Four Sanskrit inscriptions by the king Purna Varman has been found in Batavia. He ruled western Java during 6th century A.D. His capital was Taruma. He dug a vast canal and named it Gomati River. Earlier his father Rajadhiraja had dug a similar canal and named it Chandrabhaga River.
Chinese works of the Sui period (589-906 A.D.) give evidence of the existence of several Hindu kingdoms and 28 feudatory Hindu kings in the island of Java during the subsequent period. During the Tang period, the kingdom of Ho-ling emerged in central Java. The name of the kingdom suggests that it had close relation with Kalinga , i.e. modern Orissa (Majumdar, 1962, PP. 651).
The Sailendra kings ruled Java since the 8th century A.D. They became extremely powerful and conquered Sumatra and many other kingdoms of East Asia. The famous Barabudur temple was constructed by these kings. Later on the kingdom became weak and fell after the Chola attack in the 11th century.
During the 14th century, the Majapahit kings emerged in Java and brought under their control most of Indonesia and Malaya. The history of the Hindu kingdoms in Java ended after the onslaught of Islam in the 15th century A.D. (Smith, 1974, PP. 185-188).
Sumatra
The earliest Hindu kingdom in the island of Sumatra was established in Sri-Vijaya in the 4th century A.D. Malaya was brought under its control. Since 684 Sri-Vijaya was ruled by the Buddhist king Jayanaga who conquered Java in 686. According to the Chinese author I-tsing, Sri-vijaya was a great centre of Buddhist learning and culture. Inscriptions discovered at Ligor in Malaya peninsula describe the vast naval and commercial power of the kingdom of Sri-Vijaya, which could successfully carry on its aggressive policy during the 8th century, but later on was conquered by the Sailendras of Java (Majumdar, 1962, PP. 650-651).
Borneo
The Hindu colonization of eastern Borneo is substantiated by seven Sanskrit inscriptions found at Muara Kaman, an important sea-port in ancient times. These inscriptions refer to the king Mula Varman and his grandson Kundungo. The inscriptions give testimony to the great predominance of the Brahmins and Hindu culture in the island of Borneo.
The Hindu colonies advanced into the interior of eastern Borneo along Mahakam River. Similarly, the discoveries of archaeological remains on the banks of Kapuas River show that the Hindus colonized western Borneo and set up a number of settlements in the valley of this river. (Ibid. PP. 652-653)
Bali
The Hindus had colonized the island of Bali and set up a kingdom there before 6th century A.D. The Chinese history of Leang dynasty (502-557 A.D.) gives the following interesting account of Bali: “The king’s family name is Kaudinya and he said that the wife of Suddhadana was a daughter of his country.
In 518 A.D. the king of Bali sent an envoy to China. The name Kaundinya is interesting and shows the influence of that family in all the Hindu colonies of Suvarnadvipa (Indonesia). The Chinese author gives a detailed account of the manners and splendors of the Royal Court, which testifies to the fact that in the 6th century A.D. the island of Bali was the seat of a prosperous Hindu kingdom. (Ibid. P. 653)
After the onslaught of Islam during the 15th century A.D., the Hindu cultural influence subsided in most of the Indonesian islands except Bali. The remnants of Hindu culture and tradition in Indonesia still linger in the island of Bali.
References
Ghosal, Dr. U. N. (1957): “Economic Conditions (Post Mauryan)”, in K. A. Nilakanta Sastri (ed.): A Comprehensive History of India, Vol. II, the Mauryas and Satvahanas, Ch. XXIV, PP. 430-457, Orient Longmans, Bombay, Calcutta, Madras
Mahajan, Vidya Dhar (1986): Ancient India, S. Chand & Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi
Majumdar, R. C. (1960): Ancient India, Motilal Banarasi Dass, Delhi
Majumdar, R.C. (ed.) (1962): The History and Culture of the Indian People, the Classical Age, Ch. XXIV, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan
Majumdar, R. C., Roychoudhury, H. C., & Datta, Kalikinkar (1980): An Advanced History of India, Macmillan Company of India, Madras
Smith, Vincent A. (1974): The Oxford History of India, Oxford University Press, Delhi.
Rhys Davis, Mrs. C. A. F. (1962): “Economic Conditions According to Early Buddhist Literature”, in E. J. Rapson (ed.): The Cambridge History of India, Vol. I. Ancient India, Ch. VIII, S. Chand & Co., Delhi (Second Indian Reprint)
III. Ethical Basis of Exploitation of the Dalits in India
Introduction
The most intricate issue pertaining to deprivation, discrimination, exploitation and oppression in India since independence is the dalit issue.
The term “dalit” means downtrodden and trampled. In fact the dalits in India, the lowest of the lower castes and the poorest of the poor, are being trampled (socially, politically and economically) by the rich, especially those belonging to the upper castes.
It is very difficult to estimate exactly the number of dalits in India. But the most liberal estimate would make the number larger than the population of most of the countries of the world except China, India, USA and Indonesia. Roughly they comprise about 16.48 per cent of India’s population. But their share of ownership of land and property, and access to education and employment and basic social amenities is miserably lower. The worst inhuman practice against them is the practice of untouchability, which is rampant in all the states of India. This is associated with various kinds of atrocities perpetrated on them by the rich (mostly belonging to the upper castes and the upper strata of the lower castes). All these social exploitation have been associated with economic exploitation and slavery.