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HOW

STRONG

IS YOUR

IMMUNE

SYSTEM?

HOW

STRONG

IS YOUR

IMMUNE

SYSTEM?

Leading scientists reveal

how to bolster your body’s natural defenses

against cold,

flu & disease.

CONTENTS

Preface

Dr Frank Tufaro, Ph.D.

Introduction

Your Immune System

Fast Facts

Three Ways to Boost Your Immune System

with Knowledge

Dr. Yancey Gillespie, UNIVERSITY OF ALABAMA-BIRMINGHAM

· How the immune system works

· Autoimmune disease

· Allergies and immunity

· Aging and disease

· Wake up your immune system!

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Fast Facts

I

Viruses vs. the immune system

Three Ways to Boost Your Immune System with

I Viruses that kill Cancer

Chapter 2

Dr. Charles Grose, UNIVERSITY OF IOWA

I Do vaccines work?

I Measles, Mumps, and Tetanus

Three Ways to Boost Your Immune System with

Your Lifestyle

Chapter 4

I How not to get the flu

I Asthma and your immune system

I Chicken Pox or Shingles?

I The most fascinating virus

I How we catch colds

Fast Facts

Dr. Akiko Tanaka, TAMPA BAY RESEARCH

I Integrative medicine

I Pinecone extract

I Balance in the immune system

I How nature protects us

I Aging and immunity

I How to live longer

INSTITUTE

Dr. Grant McFadden, UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA

I What is a virus?

I Ebola and HIV

I Bird flu and arboviruses

I How viruses jump from animals to humans

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About Allera Health and Immune Extra®

About the Scientists

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Preface

Frank Tufaro, Ph.D.

Let’s start right off with a brief quiz. How many

times have you eaten live poliovirus—on purpose?

a) Once was enough for me.

b) Three times, of course!

c) Are you kidding me?

B is the correct answer, of course!

Did you know that most infants in North

America are fed three strains of live polio as a way

to prevent polio infection in the future? It sounds

incredible and kind of dangerous, but it’s true—and

it works.

Here’s how it works. As an infant, you were

most likely fed vaccine strains, or special weakened

strains, of polio to teach your immune system

what polio looks like. Your immune system remem-

bers this and can quickly and effectively kill any

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subsequent polio that it may encounter. The vaccine

strains are called “ live” because they actually colo-

nize your intestines for several days and reproduce

many copies of themselves, just like a does. In this

way you are“ vaccinated against polio.”

This discovery, and the discovery made in the

eighteenth century that deliberate infection of

healthy people with certain strains of cowpox virus

(from a cow!), could prevent smallpox in humans, is

a cornerstone in the foundation of modern medicine

and has allowed for the total wordwide eradication

of smallpox, with polio soon to follow.

Consider that there were only 1,315cases of polio

infection worldwide in 2007. Compare this with the

more than 58,000 people infected in 1952 during the

last polio epidemic in the United States. Moreover, it

is estimated that more than 20 million people were

infected worldwide between 1840 and 1950.

The discovery of vaccines for eradicating these

extraordinarily successful pathogens represents

monumental human achievements that will have to

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be replicated in the future as new threats emerge.

Where will the next threat come from?

The answers to these and other compelling

questions are the driving force behind the creation

of this book. Your immune system is your ultimate

guardian, and the success of vaccines relies entirely

on your ability to mount an effective immune

response when faced with danger.

When I first started my career as a research

scientist and professor in the department of micro-

biology and immunology at the University of British

Columbia, I taught a course in virology (the study of

viruses) to two hundred or so senior students at

eight in the morning. I began most lectures with a

question such as the one above, or with this one:

How many of you havebeen infected with herpes?

I would raise my own hand and ask, “All of us?”

The students would slump down in their seats.

Some looked around at each other. A few giggled.

Several looked shocked. The question was certainly

provocative and woke them up, as was my intent!

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When I followed up with, “ How many of you

have had chicken pox?” they all raised their hands

but were still confused.

It was a bit of a trick question. Many types of

herpesviruses infect humans. Chicken pox is caused

by a herpesvirus, varicella zoster, which is similar

to the herpes simplex virus that causes cold sores.

I knew that 95percent or more of my students

would have had chicken pox while growing up.

Therefore, virtually all them had been previously

infected with a herpesvirus! They were indeed

happy to learn this.

This book is designed to wake you up as well.

Our goal is to provide answers to important ques-

tions you may have about your immune system,

infections, cancer, autoimmunity, and what you can

do to stay healthy.

The battle between viruses and our immune

system is an ancient one that is still raging. Why are

certain viruses potentially deadly (Ebola, HIV),

while others are merely a nuisance (the cold virus,

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for example)? Which virus can cause cancer? Can

this be prevented? Can your immune system prevent

cancer?

Fortunately, as you will learn from this book, our

immune system has some pretty sophisticated

weapons for fighting back, especially if it is working

at its peak. We know that stress, poor diet, lack of

sleep, and even medications can weaken the

immune system.

We also know that your immune system’s

effectiveness increases from birth until the teenage

years but then undergoes a subtle decline through-

out the rest of your life. This decline leads to

impairment in coping with infectious agents that

can cause disease and illness. This book will suggest

ways to stay strong.

Scientists are also beginning to take advantage of

the destructive nature of viruses to develop potent

new virus- based drugs to kill diseases such as

cancer. As an example, for the past thirteen years

I have worked with my colleagues on developing

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herpes simplex viruses for treating brain tumors.

Yes, it is possible to genetically modify viruses in the

research laboratory to harness their ability to kill

certain cells (that’s what a cold sore is—certain cells

dying), while not killing others. If we can make

viruses kill only cancer cells in the brain without

killing normal brain tissue, that could be a potent

new therapy for this deadly disease.

Finally, we’ll look at theeffectivenessof abalanced

approach to treating health- related issues, in an

approach known as“ integrativemedicine,” in which

weincludethebest of both conventional therapiesand

alternativetreatmentsfrom other cultures.

I have called on several world- renowned experts

in immunology, virology, and vaccines to help ask

and answer some important questions. Much of the

book relies on a question- and- answer format,

because we want you to easily find topics that are

important to you.

We believe you will find this book both informa-

tive and enjoyable, and the next time someone asks

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you something like, “ How can I get the flu if I was

just vaccinated?” you will be able to say, “ I just read

this great book. . . .”

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phagocytes (neutrophils, macrophages) and natural

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COMPONENTS OF THE IMMUNE SYSTEM

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killer (NK) cells, must act quickly to destroy

invaders, even on first encounter. Fortunately for us,

these cells are capable of recognizing many com-

mon, essential features of pathogens, such as micro-

bial DNA, sugars, and proteins and possess the

“ weapons” to destroy them. No prior exposure is

required. Simply put, this part of the immune

system is hardwired by our genetics to recognize

these invaders and destroy them.

Another extremely important part of our

immune system is called acquired immunity. As

the name suggest, we acquire this type of immune

response when we are exposed to foreign sub-

stances. This type of immunity requires prior

knowledge of the invader, and therefore is not

instantaneous. On our first exposure to a specific

microorganism, our immune system undergoes a

permanent change so that it can “ remember” what

this invader looks like. This is usually a highly

specific response mediated in part by lymphocytes,

which are the agents of acquired immunity. The

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beauty of this system is that once the immune sys-

tem has committed the invader to memory, it can

respond quickly and effectively the next time it

encounters this invader (and its close cousins).

Our immune system also has to learn very

quickly what belongs to us (our DNA, proteins,

sugars) and what belongs to potential threats (virus

DNA, foreign proteins, tumor cells). It also has to

recognize the foods that we eat (foreign) without

constantly trying to destroy them.

Unfortunately, this ability can sometimes break

down, which can lead to some forms of autoimmune

disease. Our immune system occasionally mounts

an inappropriate immune response to our own

molecules, which can itself cause disease. No

system is perfect.

Like our own memories, immune“ memory”

changes throughout our lifetime as we encounter

new things and forget old ones. The immune system

can “ forget” things as we get older (or perhaps the

invaders have changed so that they are no longer

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easily recognized.) Thus, our immune system may

be well equipped to fight off the flu virus that we

caught last year but not the slightly different one

that will be spreading this year. Pathogens adapt.

Our immune systems respond. It is an elegant and

ongoing dance of survival.

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FAST FACTS

THREE WAYS TO BOOST

YOUR IMMUNE SYSTEM

WITH KNOWLEDGE

1. BEWARE OF DISEASE

They say the world is flat, and while that may be

great for global commerce, it’s not so great for pre-

venting the spread of disease. The international

borders are open, creating an avenue for harmful

microorganisms (viruses, bacteria, parasites, and fungi)

to find their way to your front door as efficiently as

any package delivered by FedEx.

A shift in weather patterns can also affect the

transmission and potentially harmful properties of

infectious agents. For example, shifts in bird migration

patterns, changing wind currents, and increased tropi-

cal storm activity may whip up microorganisms in such

a way that they can spread more easily.

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The Trust for America’s Health states that at least

170,000 Americans die annually from newly emerging

and reemerging infectious diseases, a number that

could increase dramatically during a severe flu epidemic

or outbreak of an unknown disease. These diseases

could endanger us both at home and overseas, put our

military at increased risk, and conceivably fuel political

instability in developing nations.

While much attention and funding has gone

toward thwarting bioterrorist attacks, there has not

been as much focus on naturally occurring perils

such as severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS),

dengue fever, hepatitis C, and Methicillin-resistant

Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). And while you’re

keeping a wary eye out for these new pathogens,

don’t be surprised when we see a reemergences of

more familiar diseases such as measles, mumps, and

tuberculosis.

The message here is that identifying, treating, and

eliminating infectious diseases must remain at the

forefront of medical research. Because of the sheer

2 2

numbers of pathogens swarming around us, this war

will never be won. You can win many battles, however,

by, taking steps to keep your immune system working

at its peak.

2. REMEMBER THAT SOME BACTERIA ARE

BENEFICIAL

Cleanliness may be a culprit when it comes to allergies

and autoimmune diseases. Based on studies of coun-

tries where antibiotics are not commonly prescribed,

scientists have come up with the “hygiene hypothesis.”

This hypothesis suggests that we may have gotten

too far away from the soil in our modern lifestyles. An

increase in the use of processed foods and enhanced

sanitary conditions may have rendered our immune

systems less effective. We have sterilized the very

systems that have kept us healthy. Remember, our

immune systems must come into contact with poten-

tial invaders so that they can know their enemies!

As our culture has evolved from agricultural to indus-

trial, researchers say we may have lost some important

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connection to our immune system strength along the

way, namely, the microorganisms from the soil that

surrounded our food stocks. While nobody’s yet devel-

oped a cuisine consisting completely of the earth’s

crust, don’t be surprised to see some attempts to

provide the essential balance and exposure to

bacteria that previous generations enjoyed. Being

too clean may be a double-edged sword that can

hurt us as well as the invaders.

3. GET COMFORTABLE WITH VIRUSES!

Now that you’ve been convinced by the hygiene

hypothesis to buddy up with some of the more helpful

forms of bacteria, you may as well take the final leap

and get comfortable with the other friends of the

immune system, the viruses. While you may think of

all viruses as ”alien life forms,” consider that up to

one-third of our human DNA probably originated from

viruses. In fact, researchers now believe that our

survival as a species depends on our coexistence

with bacteria.

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Scientists don’t consider a virus a living thing.

That’s because a virus is merely a relatively small piece

of genetic material (RNA or DNA) that cannot repro-

duce itself unless it gains entry to a “host cell”—that

could be our cells! A virus must find a host, infect that

host by entering a cell, and take control of that host

cell machinery to replicate itself. This can be quite a

spectacular process. Consider that a polio virus, which

is a small piece of RNA only 7,381 units long, enters a

cell with 3 billion units of DNA. Despite its small size,

the polio virus RNA encodes several extremely power-

ful proteins designed to take over the cell. They are so

powerful that only two hours after the virus enters the

cell, that cell is dead, having reproduced millions of

copies of new poliovirus, which spill out to infect even

more cells.

Here’s another reason to start seeing viruses in

a new light. They have an incredible work ethic that

could put us all to shame, and they are speed demons

that make copies of themselves much faster than

our human cells can. While this is dangerous if you’re

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dealing with a lethal viral invader that threatens your

health, it’s possible that the viruses we all carry

around with us helped us get to where we are—they

helped us to evolve.

Finally, some immunologists are now using viruses

to fight other diseases. By studying what a particular

virus can do, these researchers are able to remove the

elements of a virus that have disease-fighting capabil-

Chapter 1

Dr. Yancey Gillespie

PH.D., UNIVERSITY OF ALABAMA-BIRMINGHAM

ities and use these elements to enhance or add to

potential therapies for treating cancer patients, for

example. Several stories in this book describe work in

the field known as viral therapy.

I

I

I

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I

How the immune system works

Autoimmune disease

Allergies and immunity

Aging and disease

Wake up your immune system!

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foreign invadersof your body. Thesecellsarepart of

theinnateimmunesystem. Othershaveto learn how

to fight theforeign invaders. Thesearepart of the

adaptiveimmunesystem. Theimmunesystem hasto

betrainableor adaptive, sinceso many different kinds

of viruses, bacteria, fungi, parasites, and other

microorganismswant to useyour body asfood.

Each of these innate or adaptive immune cells

possesses a key to a lock. The innate cells are born

with it, but the adaptive cells have a blank key that

has to be cut to fit a lock.

What are the locks these keys are opening? The

locks are on the foreign invaders, and when the

immune cells open a lock, they are stimulated to

divide and produce more immune cells just like

themselves. These immune cells possess powerful

means to kill foreign invaders, so once the immune

cell gets stimulated, it kills until there are no more

locks. That’s how the immune system works.

We have all these immune cells, but there are a

lot of microorganisms out there: infectious disease

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agents, tumors, protein materials from plants or

animals. The reason we have these two kinds of

immune cells is so that we can be protected initially

by the innate cells until the immune system can

program itself to fight all the infectious agents off.

Here’s an example. Say a nasty bacteria like

streptococcus A invades your throat and begins to

attack your cells for food. Your body sends all

kinds of immune cells to the rescue, and the

immune system determines that it needs a set of

keys that fit the streptococcus A locks—but there

are hundreds of locks!

To addressthis, our immunesystem uses an

amazing trick wecall the“ generation of diversity.”

Theimmunesystem isactually ableto produceall

kindsof keysby stimulating theright cells. Wecall

thesekeysantibodies, madeby theBlymphocytes,

and antigen receptors, madeby theT lymphocytes.

Each Bcell or T cell hasadifferent key, and thusan

entirearmy of cells isgenerated with many, many dif-

ferent specificities: custom immunecells on thefly.

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Each immune lymphocyte does this by keeping a

portion of these antibody, or antigen, receptor pro-

teins constant, while reshuffling the rest of the mol-

ecules to customize their effect. This reshuffling or

cutting of the keys allows our adaptive immune

system to develop millions of combinations, out of

immune cells with the right keys are preserved

through a process called memory, and when the

invader tries again, they are ready to swing into

action. In this way, our immune system can

recognize an almost infinite number of threats to

our bodies.

HOW YOUR IMMUNE SYSTEM REMEMBERS INVADERS

As we have seen, the immune response is a subtle,

1. An intruder

enters the

body and is

picked up by a

dendritic cell

2. The

dendritic cell

delivers the

invader to a

T-cell

3. The

T-cell

divides into

two cells

4. The T-cell divides

further into infection

fighting cells and

“memory” cells that

know how to fight the

sophisticated system designed to do very specific

things. And there are control mechanisms to keep

the immune system in check.

Think of the immune system like a bulldog that

bug if it shows up again.

you want to attack only intruders, not friends. The

leash you have on the dog keeps it from attacking

indiscriminately.

But in autoimmunity, that leash is missing. To

Intruder

T-cell

complicate matters, our immune system is made of a

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Fighter

T-cells

Memory

T-cells

lot of components. If some of those components

aren’t working right, your immune system can get

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turned on, but there’s nothing to turn it off again.

It tends to keep attacking.

And the more experienced the immune system

gets with what’s its attacking, the more vicious it

becomes in its attack. The leash is gone! There’s no

control system.

How can our immune system become stronger?

Diversity is important.

You don’t want all the immune cells to recognize

the same lock. Remember the generation of diversity.

You want custom immune cells. If all the immune

cells were the same, and a bacterium came along

with locks that the keys don’t fit, that bacterium

Antigen

ANTIBODY LOCKS AND KEYS

Antigen-binding areas

could run rampant through your body and kill you.

That’s why you need all the different keys.

This immune cell diversity happens in the gene

within the immune cell. Those genes can mutate

within cells, producing a multitude of changes—

millions and millions of different combinations.

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Antibodies are proteins found in your blood. Your immune

system uses them to identify and neutralize foreign antigens,

such as bacteria and viruses. Antibodies are produced by a

B cell, a white blood cell. Antibodies are all similar to one

another, with the exception of a small region at the tip.

This area is wildly variable, allowing millions of antibodies

with slightly different structures to exist. Each antibody binds

to a specific antigen; an interaction similar to a lock and key.

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And somewhere in all those combinations is the cell

with the perfect key to unlock the lock.

That cell gets turned on and expands, making

more cells like itself. All these new cells have the

same key that fits the lock to defeat the virus or the

microorganism or tumor.

Once a cell is determined to be the one with the

right key, that cell “ wins.” It makes multiple copies

of itself very quickly.

These new cells possess the same key and are

sent out with the instructions to go open the lock

and destroy the foreign invader. They quickly attack

the bacterium or the virus- infected cell and elimi-

nate the threat.

Our immune cells receives instructions?

Theimmunesystem usesasort of elementary school

education process. Your immunecellsarecreated in

thebonemarrow, and someof thesecells(called T

lymphocytes) aresent to immunesystem school in an

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organ called thethymus. Thethymusliterally pres-

entsto thecells all theantigenspresent in thebody.

But sometimesaT cell’skey opensthewrong lock, a

lock that isactually beneficial to thebody. Say it

opensalock on aheart musclecell. Wecan’t let it

open that lock, so it hasto die. Cellswith keysto

forbidden locksarewiped out, and the“ educated”

T cellscan then leaveto form theprotectivearmy.

In autoimmunedisorders, thecell can makeakey

that it’snot supposed to make, escaping “ elementary

school.” That key bindsto or attackssomething bene-

ficial to our body. It’smuch moredifficult to kill those

cellsoncethey’vegotten out.

Theimmunesystem isvery complex in itsnum-

bersand typesof cells. Along with theT lymphocytes,

educated in thethymus, wealso haveB lymphocytes,

theantibody- producing cells. Becausethesecells

wereinitially discovered in thebursa, alymphoid

organ found only in chickens, westill call them B

cells. But in humansantibody cellsareactually

generated in thebonemarrow and migrateout to

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largeantibody- producing organsand tissues, such as

thespleen, tonsils, and lymph nodes.

Much likean army, therearedozensof typesof T cells,

each onewith adifferent function. Someareregulatory T

cells, somearekiller T cells, somearecellsthat suppress

invaders, and somearecellsthat help B cellsmakeantibod-

ies. Theimmunesystem is really ahugecommunity of

systemsthat work together.

system, because the immune system and the nervous

system evolved separately.

When the brain is injured and the immune

system enters, reactions can occur. For instance,

our brain cells use a certain protein to insulate

axons and dendrites, so that if they happen to

touch, they don’t short- circuit. Multiple sclerosis

is thought to be an autoimmune allergic reaction to

the body?

The immune system exists everywhere in your body

except the brain. The brain has several ways to keep

the immune system out. The only time parts of the

immune system can gain access is when there is

physical trauma or damage.

In the case of trauma, immune system cells enter

the brain and say, “ What is all this stuff? We’ve

never seen it before.” The brain is full of nervous

system cells that seem foreign to the immune

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Are allergies related to the immune system?

Some people are genetically predisposed to allergies.

Their immune system makes the wrong kind of

antibody, called Immunoglobulin E (IgE). IgE recog-

nizes things like peanuts or pollen and it produces

the wrong response. This antibody binds to the

antigen, and when it does it activates cells known

as eosinophils.

When the IgE combine with the eosinophil, the

eosinophil release histamines and other bad things

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that have a very potent responses in the body. They

manifest themselves as allergic reactions: the water-

ing of the eyes, and causing the muscle in your

trachea to contract so that you are not able to

breathe. Not good reactions.

Now eosinophils are not all bad. They are actu-

ally present in very small numbers in the blood, and

they are very important in fighting parasitic infec-

tions. As humans were evolving from scavengers to

settlers, we had exposure to lots of parasites.

Eosinophils probably kept us alive because of their

ability to attack and kill parasites. But today they

mainly produce these allergic responses.

How does aging affect the immune system?

In the elderly, the immune system has pretty much

petered out, so the elderly are more susceptible to

bacterial and viral diseases. A younger person who

becomes ill can spend a few days in bed and then be

up and running. But because an elderly person’s

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immune system has weakened, it needs something

to heighten its awareness. It needs something to

help it reactivate.

Our immune system has an “ on” switch and an

“ off” switch. When the immune system encounters

something foreign, it gets turned on. But in the

process of getting turned on, the immune system

activates a mechanism that will turn it off—it’s part

of the leash we talked about. After the immune

response has had sufficient time to eliminate the

foreign invader, it will get turned back off. Most

biological systems work this way.

But it gets even subtler. These“ ons” and “ offs”

cycle up and down. When you’re young, the cycles

are very strong. As you age, the on and off cycles

continue, but not as strongly.

To be honest, we don’t completely understand

what limits the responsiveness of the immune sys-

tem as we age. We do know the cells that evoke the

immune response wear out and have to be replaced.

But fewer cells are made in the bone marrow, and

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the immune system education system begins to

close down. In essence, the immune system

becomes ineffective because the cells that are

generated as a result of the immune response get

tired, die, and are not replaced.

So as you age, you need to slap your immune

system in the face to wake it up. You need it to

produce more cells so that it can look for harmful

FAST FACTS

THREE WAYS TO BOOST

YOUR IMMUNE SYSTEM

WITH YOUR NATURAL

DEFENSES

invaders. That way, when the flu or a bacterial or

viral infection occurs, your immune response will be

1.

TAKE CARE OF YOUR SKIN

heightened. It will be ready to work.

To stay safe, especially if you are older, you want

to keep your immune system tuned up. Then it’s

ready, it’s watching and waiting. Otherwise, as you

age, it will simply lose interest.

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Your skin is the external barrier, the immune system’s

first line of defense. Your skin maintains the entire

immune system within its borders and keeps foreign

elements and pathogens at bay.

Not merely a surface layer, your skin is an incredibly

complex organ that is interconnected with your nervous

system and your immune system. The skin protects the

body’s storehouses of folate, a B-complex vitamin that is

an important part of cellular growth, helping the body

replicate DNA when cells divide. The skin is where the

manufacturing of vitamin D takes place: when our bodies

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our exposed to certain types of sunlight, they convert

cholesterol to vitamin D.

And don’t forget those bodily fluids that, along with

the skin, also form a first line of defense: tears flush out

the eyes, and your saliva contains enzymes that are part

of the immune system.

Feeling lousy during a cold can be viewed as a good

sign that your immune system is operating in high gear.

For instance, coughing and sneezing is your body invol-

untarily ejecting pathogens from your respiratory tract

(although some scientists suggest that the viruses

themselves stimulate coughing and sneezing as a way

to find freedom on the airwaves and locate new hosts

to conquer and infect).

specialization, and distribution of white blood cells,

called lymphocytes, that fight infection.

Approximately five hundred lymph nodes are

located throughout your body, and they link with each

other by way of lymphatic vessels. The lymph is a clear

waterlike fluid that transports lymphocytes and other

substances for use throughout the body.

Try fighting off pathogens without your thymus.

This organ is where your lymphocytes come to learn

their specialized and intricate tasks, before entering

the bloodstream in service to the system. Make a fist.

Now you know the size of your spleen, located in the

upper abdomen above the stomach and under the rib

cage. The spleen plays an important role in filtering

2.

OPTIMIZE YOUR IMMUNE SYSTEM ORGANS

out foreign substances and forming lymphocytes.

The blood vessels that carry the blood cells and

While the brain, heart, and lungs receive a good deal of

attention, you certainly don’t want to neglect those

organs that are integral to a highly functioning

immune system. These essential organs are organized

as the lymphatic system, coordinating the creation,

4 2

the bone marrow where they are created round out

the major organs making up the highly intricate

lymphatic network. Bone marrow is a supple type of

tissue found in the hollow interior of your bones, and

the marrow in large bones produces new blood cells.

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While bone marrow makes up less than 5 percent of

body weight, it certainly carries its weight in the overall

immune system. All the cells of the immune systems

are initially derived from this source. It all begins with

the bone marrow.

When the T lymphocyte white blood cells (or T

cells) that are educated in the thymus detect a foreign

invader, they set off the immune response to the

particular antigen (antigen is short for the antibody

generation that follows the immune response).

3.

TAKE SPECIAL CARE OF YOUR CELLS

Those antibodies are made from proteins created

by the B lymphocyte cells (or B cells), and they are

Who has the best cellular coverage? Your immune sys-

tem just might be the winner when it comes to putting

cells to work for the detection, defense, and disposal

of pathogens and other foreign invaders. Without the

estimated 10 trillion (or more) cells, your body would

suffer a lot of dropped calls when it comes to fighting

off viruses, bacteria, and other infections. And when

they wear out and die, they are replaced by new cells.

While red blood cells carry oxygen to body tissue

using the bloodstream, white blood cells carry the day

when it comes to the immune system and the complex

functions of immune response. These white blood

cells are also called leukocytes, which is Greek for

“white cell.”

4 4

soon at work attaching themselves to the antigens

and inhibiting their progress. Or there may be an all-out

response to the pathogen that results in inflammation.

That’s when some really specialized cells, such as neu-

trophils and macrophages, show up.

Neutrophils like to congregate around the site of

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