Gospel Mysteries
by Lonely Soul
Ebook Edition
Published by Smashwords
Unless otherwise noted, all biblical quotations in this book are from the New International Version of the Bible, published by the International Bible Society.
All images are public domain works reproduced courtesy of the WikiMedia Commons website (www.commons.wikimedia.org). The image on the cover is a reproduction of the painting Madonna dell Granduca by Raphael.
Copyright Notice
The author of this book has released its textual content into the public domain. Therefore this content, or any part of it, may be freely reproduced, distributed, transmitted, used, modified, built upon, or otherwise utilized by anyone for any purpose, commercial or non-commercial, and in any way, including by methods that have not yet been invented. A copy of the full public domain dedication can be found at the end of the book.
Ebook Edition
Published in March 2009
Table of Contents
Where Was Golgotha?
The Fires of Hell
Demonic Possession
The Original Ending of Mark
The Devil
What Causes Stigmata?
The Fate of the Nazarenes
The Resurrection of the Dead Saints
Who Was the First Witness to the Resurrection?
The Virgin Birth
The Gospel of John
The Controversial Teachings of Jesus
Does a Divine Language Exist?
Why Did Judas Betray Jesus?
The Son of Man
Why Did Jesus Have to Die?
Who Was the Beloved Disciple?
Secret Gospels
The Eucharist
The True Cross
The Mystery of Barabbas
Will Jesus Come Again?
The Family of Jesus
Why Was Jesus Crucified?
The Mysterious Mary Magdalene
What Was in the Lost Gospels?
Glossary
Public Domain Dedication
List of Art Reproductions:
The Kiss of Judas by Giotto di Bondone
Madonna dell Granduca by Raphael
The Crucifixion by Gustave Dore
Carrying the Cross by Hieronymous Bosch
Mary Magdalene by Jose de Ribera
The Temptation of Christ by Ary Scheffer
The Devil in Hell by Gustave Dore
The Demoniac from Heures du duc de Berry
Barabbas An Illustration from a 1909 Bible
Where Was Golgotha?
Golgotha is the biblical name for the place where Jesus was crucified. It was probably a small hill just outside the walls of ancient Jerusalem. According to Christian tradition, it was within the area now occupied by the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. But some biblical scholars doubt that this is the correct location.
The name "Golgotha" is derived from the Aramaic word gulgulta. Matthew 27:33 and Mark 15:22 give its meaning as "place of the skull." When Saint Jerome translated these verses into Latin, he used the Latin word for skull, calvaria, which was later converted into the English word Calvary.
The gospels don't say why Golgotha was called the "place of the skull". One common suggestion is that the site was on a hill or near a rock that had the shape of a skull. Another suggestion, first made by the third-century scholar Origen, is that the name referred to the burial place of Adam's skull, traditionally believed to have been interred at Jerusalem. But these are merely suggestions, and no one really knows how the site got its name.
The bible also doesn't say where Golgotha was located. But it does give three specific clues:
Clue 1. John 19:41-42 says that Jesus' body was carried only a short distance before it was placed in the tomb. This indicates that the site was probably close to a cemetery.
Clue 2. Hebrews 13:12 reports that the site was "outside the city gate", but unfortunately doesn't say which gate.
Clue 3. Matthew 27:39 indicates that the location was near a road which carried a lot of foot traffic.
The second clue is consistent with an old Jewish religious requirement that all executions had to take place outside the city, a requirement which the Romans appear to have generally honored. And the third clue is consistent with the fact that the Romans often crucified people on elevated spots near major roads, to serve as a warning of the probable fate of anyone who challenged their authority.
Some scholars have suggested that Golgotha was probably near the northern section of the city, because this would put it close to the administrative area, where the main public buildings were located. At the time of the crucifixion, the northern section of the city was bounded by a wall known as the Second Wall. Unfortunately Jerusalem was destroyed twice by the Roman army during Jewish revolts in the first and second centuries, and this makes it difficult to determine the exact boundaries of the ancient city. However, the approximate location of the Second Wall is known.
During the first destruction of Jerusalem, most Christians fled the city, and the second destruction dispersed almost the entire population. Because of these upheavals, and because Christian writers rarely mentioned Golgotha during the next two centuries, some scholars think that knowledge of its location was probably lost. But other scholars argue that local traditions could have been strong enough to preserve the knowledge despite the upheavals. The scarcity of reliable information from these early centuries makes it impossible to know for sure.
Better information is available in writings from the fourth century onward, starting from the time of Constantine the Great. During his reign he and his mother, Empress Helena, became interested in building a church near the locations of Golgotha and the tomb in which Jesus’ body was placed. The idea was especially appealing to the Empress, and in 326 AD she made a trip to Jerusalem to explore the possibilities.
When the Empress reached Jerusalem, she was told that Golgotha and the tomb were in the vicinity of an old Jewish cemetery located on the northwest side of the city. The original source of this information is uncertain. One story, found in a fifth-century book known as the Acts of Judas Cyriacus, says that Christians had learned about the cemetery from an old Jew who had to be tortured before he would reveal its location. But many scholars doubt this story, and in fact there is a good possibility that the cemetery was well-known to the people of the city. It's also possible that local traditions associated the cemetery with past crucifixions, thereby making it an obvious choice for the site of Golgotha.
In any case, the Empress was told that Golgotha and the tomb were in the vicinity of this old Jewish cemetery. But the exact locations of the two sites were still unknown. One problem was that the Romans had built a pagan temple over part of the cemetery, and in the process they probably destroyed parts of it.
Shortly after her arrival, the Empress ordered the demolition of the pagan temple and the excavation of the area beneath it. The earliest account of this excavation, by the church historian Eusebius, simply says "the venerable and hallowed monument of Our Lord's resurrection became visible." Exactly what this statement means isn’t clear, but some later accounts say that the excavation uncovered a tomb containing some nails and the sign that Pilate had attached to the top of the cross. Several later accounts also say that three crosses were found, either in the tomb or a nearby cistern, and that one of them was identified by its healing powers as the true cross.
Because the earliest writer Eusebius doesn't mention the nails, the crosses, or Pilate's sign, some scholars think that the later accounts were embellished, especially since they differ from each other in various details. Thus, there is uncertainty about what was actually found during the excavation.
Note: The map shows the traditional location of Golgotha as identified by Empress Helena.
The first churches built at the location were later destroyed, once by Persian invaders, and once by Arabs. After the Crusaders gained control of Jerusalem in the eleventh century, they constructed the present Church of the Holy Sepulchre, although part of it had to be rebuilt after it was damaged by a fire in 1808. It encloses both the tomb of Jesus and a small rocky outcrop called the "rock of Golgotha".
According to church tradition, Jesus began his walk to Calvary from the Antonia Fortress, which housed the main Roman military garrison in the city. The traditional route, called the Via Dolorosa, covers a distance of about 0.4 mile [650 meters] and ends at the church. However, some scholars think that the last interrogation of Jesus took place at Herod's Palace, and that he began the walk from there. This would be a shorter distance.
The site of the present church appears to fit the available evidence regarding Golgotha's location: The church is north-west of the ancient city, probably just outside the ancient wall, and apparently in the area of an old cemetery. Thus it may very well mark the correct location, or at least be near it. But some scholars have expressed doubts, and several other possible sites have been proposed. The best-known alternate location, Gordon's Calvary (the Garden Tomb), is about 0.4 mile north of the ancient city.
Hell
Hell is the place of punishment for the souls of the damned. Artists often depict it as an enormous cavern inside the earth, but it could actually be located in another dimension or a different universe. Whatever its location, it is ruled by the Devil, who is assisted by numerous demons in administering the various punishments.
Although the doomed souls in hell don't have physical bodies, they still feel real pain and experience real terror. This is because they are given the delusion that they do have real bodies, which are repeatedly mutilated, or perpetually burned, yet somehow continue to survive. This method of punishment allows the tortures to go on forever, since a soul never dies.
Some medieval writers speculated about the possible ways in which these doomed souls are punished. The ideas included relentless flogging with barbed whips, continuous immersion in a vat of boiling blood, confinement in a pit of poisonous vipers, permanent impalement on a thick lance, and repeatedly being ripped apart and eaten by demons.
According to the Book of Revelation, the Devil will eventually be punished along with the doomed souls. Revelation 20:10 says that he will be thrown into a lake of burning sulfur, where he "will be tormented day and night for ever and ever." Other biblical passages indicate that the Beast (Antichrist), the False Prophet, the demons, and all the doomed souls will also end up in this lake.
In some passages this lake of burning sulfur is called a "lake of fire", and artistic depictions usually show flames leaping up from its surface. Sulfur (also called brimstone) melts at about 115 degrees Celsius (240 degrees Fahrenheit), which means that the liquid sulfur in the lake is hotter than boiling water. People sometimes assume that this liquid sulfur serves as the fuel for the leaping flames. But unless there is an endless supply of sulfur, all of it would eventually be used up and the flames would die out. A more likely possibility is that the fires of hell don’t need any fuel.
According to the traditional view, this lake of fire is at the center of hell, which is located in a huge cavern somewhere within the earth. Ancient stories suggest that such a cavern might be accessible by a long narrow passageway leading down from a hidden entrance on the earth's surface. However, the cavern could be hundreds of miles below the surface, or even at the center of the planet, much too deep to be reached by a passageway from above.
But hell might not be located inside the earth. It could be on another planet somewhere far across the universe. Or it could even be outside ordinary space and time, such as in a separate universe or a totally different reality.
People are saved from the torments of hell if they believe in Jesus and accept him as their savior. Even a serial rapist-murderer can be saved if he repents and accepts Jesus before he dies. Unfortunately, some people have gone through their entire lives without ever hearing about Jesus, and therefore didn't have an opportunity to be saved in this way.
Many modern Christians don't believe in the traditional hell of eternal tortures. They say that a loving and merciful God would never create such a horrible place. But others point out that Jesus himself warned about hell in passages such as Matthew 5:29 and Luke 16:19-31, and this proves that it really does exist.
Demonic Possession
In ancient times many people believed that evil spirits can enter a person's body and take control of it. This was a common explanation for conditions such as epilepsy and madness. In modern terminology this "madness" probably referred to certain mental disorders such as schizophrenia and delirium. Even today, we still don't fully understand what causes these conditions. Ancient people, who had even less understanding, frequently put the blame on evil spirits.
These evil spirits were also called demons, devils, and unclean spirits. Anyone who came under their control was called a demoniac (or daimoniac), and the condition was known as "demonic possession".
In some ways demonic possession resembles multiple personality disorder. In this comparison, the demon acts like an evil alternate personality that has taken control of the mind. One difference is that an alternate personality usually doesn't take permanent control. But even when it isn't in control, it could still be lurking within the person's subconscious, and still might be able to influence behavior. Some people use this idea to try to blame their bad actions on an "inner demon".
The traditional cure for demonic possession is to expel the evil spirit from the victim's body. In ancient times this was known as driving out (or casting out) the demon. Many people now call it exorcism, and use the name exorcist for anyone who can successfully do it.
According to the gospels, Jesus often performed exorcisms along with his other miraculous healings. For instance, in describing his ministry in Galilee, Matthew 8:16 says:
When evening came, many who were demon-possessed were brought to him, and he drove out the spirits with a word and healed all the sick.
Sometimes a demon would try to talk to Jesus before it was expelled. For example, Mark 1:23-26 says that he was speaking to a crowd when a possessed man suddenly cried out:
"What do you want with us, Jesus of Nazareth? Have you come to destroy us? I know who you are -- the Holy One of God."
"Be quiet!" Jesus said sternly. "Come out of him!" The evil spirit shook the man violently and came out of him with a shriek.
In this passage the voice of the man is actually the voice of the demon inside him controlling his breath and vocal chords. And because this demon is a spirit, it is able to recognize Jesus as "the Holy One of God." But Jesus tells it to "Be quiet" about this. At this stage of his ministry he was trying to keep his messiahship secret, and he didn't want the demon to reveal it publicly.
The demon also asks Jesus if he has come to "destroy us." When it says "us", it is referring to itself and all the other demons in the world. It is afraid that Jesus has come to destroy all of them. This idea is mentioned several times in the gospel of Mark, which depicts Jesus as waging a kind of war against demons. But since demons were regarded as agents of the Devil, this was actually a war between Jesus and Satan.
According to witnesses of modern exorcisms, the demon sometimes tries to hide within the victim, and hours may pass before it finally reveals itself. Then a prolonged struggle will often take place, with the victim shaking and jerking violently as the demon fights the spiritual powers invoked to expel it. During one reported struggle of this type, the victim's face suddenly contorted into an evil sneer that apparently emanated from the demon itself. Then a terrifying shriek pierced the air, and the body collapsed on the floor as the demon left it.
Some attempted exorcisms have had tragic endings. In these cases victims were tied down on a table or bed, then repeatedly choked, squeezed, beaten, and starved, sometimes over a period of several days, and this eventually caused them to die. Although these deaths were probably unintentional, several exorcists have been convicted of crimes and sent to prison.
Jesus never used physical force when he performed an exorcism. He simply ordered the demon to leave the body. They always obeyed him because they knew who he was, and recognized his power and authority.
Although most cases of possession involve a single evil spirit, it's possible for a person to be taken over by several spirits simultaneously. For example, Luke 8:2 says that seven demons were expelled from Mary Magdalene. In a modern case, a victim spoke in different voices which claimed to be the same demons that had previously possessed Judas Iscariot, Emperor Nero, Adolf Hitler, and several other well-known evildoers.
John 7:20 and 8:52 say that some people in Jerusalem even accused Jesus himself of being possessed by a demon. This may have been their explanation for his ability to perform miraculous cures. At that time there was a general belief that a possessed person could have unusual qualities such as super-human strength, ability to foresee the future, or other special powers.
Unfortunately, Christians have sometimes accused other Christians of being possessed. This has happened during religious wars and persecutions, and during investigations into heresy and witchcraft. At the trial of Joan of Arc, church officials said that the voices in her head came from demons. In modern times accusations of demon possession have been made against members of certain fringe sects and against people who speak in tongues.
Evil spirits are sometimes blamed for other problems besides epilepsy and madness. For example, some people say that alcoholics, homosexuals, drug addicts, sexual predators, and adulterers are possessed by demons. Some Christians believe that a person who is filled with the Holy Spirit will be protected from the demons that cause these types of problems.
According to some ancient writings, demons were originally angels in heaven who supported the Devil in his rebellion against God, and were thrown out of heaven with him. Some sources say that one-third of the angels were thrown out in this way, and this has led to estimates that thousands, or even millions, of demons now serve Satan here on the earth.
But many people doubt that demons really exist. In their view, the possessed individuals described in the gospels were simply people who had mental illnesses. And Jesus cured them either through miracles or by using psychological techniques such as hypnosis.
The Ending of Mark
Ancient copies of the Gospel of Mark can have several different endings. The shortest ending is found in the oldest manuscripts, all of which terminate at verse 16:8. Most later manuscripts contain some additional verses, not always the same, which were apparently added to the gospel at later points in time. Excluding minor variations, these later additions created three new endings. The authors of these new endings didn't identify themselves.
Several theories have been put forward to explain the various endings:
Theory 1. The original ending (beyond verse 16:8) was accidentally lost. Later readers noticed the abrupt cutoff in the story, and several of them tried to finish it by inventing new endings.
Theory 2. An unknown person intentionally removed the original ending by cutting the manuscript at verse 16:8. Several later readers, unaware of what had happened, created new endings.
Theory 3. The original author was interrupted or died before he could finish the gospel, and had reached verse 16:8 at the time of the interruption.
Theory 4. The original author actually did intend to stop at verse 16:8, even though the story seems unfinished to most people.
The possible loss of the original ending is especially unfor-tunate because many biblical scholars consider Mark to be the earliest and most reliable gospel. It's also unfortunate that the apparent cutoff of the original text occurs at a critical point in the story, early on the first Easter Sunday just after Mary Magdalene and two other women discover that the tomb is empty. These women had just been told that Jesus was alive and on his way to Galilee, and that the disciples would see him there. But any account of what happened next, if it ever existed, is now lost.
One popular theory is that the original ending (beyond verse 16:8) was lost when part of a scroll accidentally broke off. In fact some scholars think that a portion of verse 16:8 itself is missing, with the extant text stopping in the middle of a sentence. If true, this would provide strong support for the theory of an accidental break off.
But there is another way to interpret verse 16:8 in which the final sentence does come to a proper end. If this interpretation is correct, it would mean that the cutoff point occurred between sentences, which goes against the theory of an accidental severing of the manuscript. Another argument against the accidental-loss theory is that an ancient scroll was normally rolled up with the ending on the inside where it would be unlikely to break off.
Another theory is that someone intentionally destroyed the original ending because it was inconsistent with some basic Christian beliefs. Of course this is merely speculation, since there is no direct evidence to support such an idea. Also, if someone had decided to destroy the ending for this reason, he or she probably wouldn't have chosen verse 16:8 as the cutoff point, because that still leaves inconsistencies. For example, verse 16:7 indicates that the disciples will have to go to Galilee to see the risen Jesus, whereas the other gospels say that he was first seen in Jerusalem. And verse 16:8 says that the women didn't tell anyone about finding the tomb empty, but the other gospels say that they immediately went and told some of the male disciples.
If the original ending really was lost or destroyed, it probably happened within a few years after the gospel was written. Otherwise the authors of Matthew and Luke, who most likely used copies of Mark as a source, would have included versions of his original ending in their gospels. Also, a longer time period would have allowed many copies of the gospel to be made, and this would increase the chance that the original ending would survive.
Some scholars think that the author of Mark stopped at verse 16:8 on purpose, despite the abrupt cutoff in the story. This is certainly possible. But it would mean that the original version of the gospel didn't describe any post-resurrection appearances of Jesus.
Another possibility is that the author was interrupted or died before he could finish writing the gospel. However, if this had happened, other people would have probably known about it, and someone likely would have mentioned it in other early writings. Still, this possibility can't be ruled out, even though it is basically speculation.
The ending chosen for most modern bibles is known as the Longer Ending (or Apocryphal Addition). It consists of twelve additional verses (Mark 16:9-20) which are attached after verse 16:8. Because these twelve verses aren't in the oldest manu-scripts, and are written in a different style, they almost certainly weren't part of the original gospel. But many people don't know this and therefore accept them as authentic.
In one of these added verses (Mark 16:18), the resurrected Jesus says that believers "will pick up snakes with their hands; and when they drink deadly poison, it will not hurt them at all." Although Jesus probably never said this, many Christians believe that he did, and a few congregations even include the handling of poisonous snakes in their church services.
Some important new information about Mark's gospel may have been discovered in 1958 at the Mar Saba monastery near Jerusalem. The discovery is a possible copy of an ancient letter written by the early church leader Clement of Alexandria, in which he quotes two passages from a previously unknown version of Mark. Although questions have been raised about the authenticity of this letter, most scholars believe that it is genuine.
According to the letter, this other version of Mark was called the "Secret Gospel of Mark", and only a small number of people had ever seen it. Because it contained extra passages, it was apparently a longer version of the gospel. In fact some scholars think that it was actually the original version. If so, the New Testament version could be a shortened form with some passages, including the ending, intentionally removed. Thus, if a complete text of the secret version could be found, it might reveal the true original ending.
But unless new information is uncovered, questions about the gospel's ending will remain unanswered. All of the main theories involve conjectures, and all of them have deficiencies. As a result, the uncertainty about the true ending is one of the biggest unsolved problems in biblical scholarship.
The Devil
The Devil is known by many names, including Satan, Lucifer, Mephistopheles, Beelzebub, the Prince of Darkness, and the Evil One. According to ancient writings, he was originally one of God's foremost angels. But pride and envy caused him to revolt, and he was thrown out of Heaven. Despite this humiliation he remained defiant, and sought revenge by trying to tempt people away from God and convert them into his own worshipers.
One of his favorite ways to tempt people is to give them fantasies of future wealth. He knows that many people will eventually be overcome by greed and turn to dishonest methods to achieve their goals. As a master of deceit, he can even entrap people who think they have rejected him.
Because of his evil nature, artists usually depict him as a loathsome repulsive creature. Paintings often show him with horns, fangs, hooves, scaly skin, red eyes, and a tail. Since he was originally an angel, he is sometimes given wings. Medieval artists often gave him the legs and hindquarters of a goat. But no one knows what he really looks like, because he can disguise himself by magically taking on any appearance he chooses, or by fading into invisibility. In fact many people think of him as a supernatural spirit rather than a physical being.
People often ask why God allows him to pursue his evil activities. One possible answer is that God doesn't have full control over his former angel. Another answer is that God allows him to tempt people in order to test their faith and devotion. But the first answer implies that God isn't truly all-powerful. And the second answer makes God the ultimate tempter, and the ultimate cause of much of the pain and suffering that people experience.
The Devil is often identified with the serpent that tempted Eve in the Garden of Eden. Later in the Old Testament he appears in the Book of Job, where he is an angel called Satan living at the Court of Heaven, but slyly stirring up trouble. By the period of the New Testament he has been thrown out of heaven, and is showing himself to be the true Evil One.
His evil intentions are depicted very clearly in the gospels, especially in the famous temptation of Jesus. As described in Matthew 4:1-11, this temptation took place in a wilderness area where Jesus had gone to meditate and fast. As he meditated, Satan approached him and challenged him to prove his powers by turning stones into bread and by leaping from the roof of the Temple in Jerusalem. Of course Jesus didn't need to prove anything, and he refused both challenges. Then, for the ultimate temptation (Matthew 4:8-10):
The devil took him to a very high mountain and showed him all the kingdoms of the world and their splendor. “All this I will give you,” he said, “if you will fall down and worship me.”
Jesus said to him, “Away from me Satan! For it is written, Worship the Lord your God, and serve him only.”
Afterward, when Jesus started his ministry, he attracted a lot of attention through his ability to expel demons. At that time the behavior of mentally-ill people was often attributed to evil spirits who had taken over their bodies under the direction of Satan. Such people were said to be possessed by demons.
The only way to cure demonic possession was to expel the evil spirits from the person's body. In one such cure, described in Luke 8:26-40, Jesus needed to expel a large number of demons from a single man. This man, who was named Legion, wore no clothes and lived in tombs. Local citizens had bound him in chains and fetters, but he had broken free and escaped. When Jesus ordered the demons to leave his body, they tried to save themselves by entering the bodies of some nearby pigs. But the pigs immediately ran into a lake and drowned.
As Christianity spread to new areas, belief in the Devil went with it. During the Middle Ages, European artists often depicted him as a half-man half-beast, but in popular stories he could disguise himself as a black cat or a toad. Some of these stories even described personal encounters with him. For example, Saint Dunstan, a tenth-century bishop of Canterbury, reported that he was in his workshop making a metal chalice when Satan suddenly appeared in front of him. To defend himself, he seized the intruder's nose with a pair of red-hot tongs.
The great Protestant reformer Martin Luther reported dozens of encounters with Satan. On one occasion he threw an ink pot at the loathsome fiend.
The Witch Hunts
Fear of the Devil was especially strong during the witch hunts of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. During this period thousands of people were accused of being his helpers, and many of them were tortured and killed.
A witch hunt would often start when something bad happened in a community, and people looked for someone to blame. It was thought that witches and warlocks, using powers given to them by Satan, could cast magic spells which would bring misfortune to others. Suspicion would usually focus on an unpopular or reclusive individual, or someone who exhibited odd behavior. Accusations against such a person were often checked by examining the suspect's body for a suspicious-looking blemish, mole, or scar called a Devil's Mark. Such a mark could nearly always be found, but if more proof was desired, a confession could usually be obtained by torture. The normal punishment was to burn the victim to death.
During this period numerous stories about witches and warlocks circulated through the population. The stories could involve secret midnight meetings, worship at the feet of the Devil, sexual orgies and perversions, sacrificed babies, and blood drinking. Sometimes there were rumors that a particular woman had become Satan's lover.
Some people are attracted to the dark side of life that the Devil represents. Secret devil worship has long existed in some communities, and there has been a resurgence in modern times.
Many modern Christians doubt that Satan really exists. They say that biblical stories such as the temptation of Jesus are allegories, and that Jesus didn't actually expel real demons.
But some people believe that everything in the Bible is literally true, including the reality of the Devil. Many of these people think that they can see his influence in modern society, and take this as further proof of his existence.
What Causes Stigmata?
Stigmata are wounds or skin markings that match the wounds suffered by Jesus. They sometimes appear on mystics or other devout people, and are often regarded as a supernatural sign from God. But the evidence frequently points to natural causes, such as self-wounding or unusual medical conditions.
Some stigmata have unusual shapes, such as a cross or a circle, and some even glow in the dark. Many of them also produce a pleasant perfume-like odor. In a few rare cases they aren't even visible, but are known to be present from the pain that they cause.
Since they match the wounds suffered by Jesus, they are normally found on the hands and ankles, on one side of the chest, and on the head, shoulders, and back. But they aren't always real wounds, because many of them occur in the form of purplish skin blotches or tattoo-like markings. Actually, in some cases what looks like a blotch may be a real wound, because small amounts of blood will sometimes seep from it, even though no breaks are visible in the skin.
Some occurrences of stigmata persist for many years, but others only last a few days. In several cases they have appeared on Good Friday and vanished on Easter morning.
The word "stigmata" is the plural of the Greek word "stigma". This was an ancient name for marks that were pricked or branded onto the bodies of slaves and soldiers for identification purposes. The word was also applied to religious symbols tattooed onto members of pagan religious cults to show their devotion to particular gods and goddesses.
The first known use of the word with regard to the wounds of Christ occurs in Galatians 6:17, where the Apostle Paul says "I bear on my body the marks of Jesus." Biblical scholars aren't sure what kind of marks Paul was referring to. Possibly they were the result of wounds he'd received from scourgings and stonings by people who opposed his teaching. But another possibility is that he intentionally inflicted wounds on himself in an attempt to experience the same pain that Jesus felt.
Attempts to re-experience the suffering of Jesus definitely took place during the Middle Ages. Writings from that time period contain numerous reports of mystics deliberately wounding themselves for such a purpose.
After self-wounding became common, people started hearing stories about wounds that appeared spontaneously. The most prominent case involved Saint Francis of Assisi, who died in 1226. It was said that his stigmata became present two years before his death, and that his hands actually appeared to have nails in them.
After Saint Francis died, other reports of spontaneous stigmata began to appear, and have continued to do so ever since. Near the end of the nineteenth century, an investigation by Doctor Antoine Imbert-Gourbeyre (1818-1912) documented hundreds of cases that had occurred up to that time. And the rate of occurrence seemed to increase during the twentieth century.
The best-known stigmatics of modern times include Padre Pio, Therese Neumann, Heather Woods, and Lilian Bernas, but there have been many others. In some modern cases, people have reported that they went into a trance in which they seemed to be nailed to a cross, and when they awoke they found the wounds or markings on their bodies.
Many Christians believe that the sudden appearance of stigmata is a supernatural sign that a person is very close to God. According to some reports, the miraculous nature of the wounds is verified by the fact that they don't respond to medical treatment, but can suddenly heal without treatment and without leaving any scars.
Some stigmatics say that they gladly suffer from the pain of their wounds because their sacrifice helps pay for the sins of other people.
Stigmata are sometimes accompanied by other unusual phenomena such as powers of prophecy and the ability to live with very little food or water. Saint Catherine of Siena (1347-1381) reportedly went without water for an entire month while her wounds were present. And Angela of Foligno (1250-1309) didn't eat anything for twelve years except for what was offered at the Eucharist. Other associated phenomena include visions, trance-like states, and tears of blood.
Natural Explanations
Many people doubt the claims about supernatural or miraculous causes for stigmata. One reason for this is that none of the reported miraculous occurrences has ever been docu-mented by strict scientific methods. In addition, there may be natural explanations for all of the reported phenomena. Here are several possible explanations:
--- A person could inflict wounds on himself while in a state of religious ecstasy and not remember doing it afterward. Failure to remember a self-infliction could also occur if an alternate personality temporarily took control of a person's body and created the stigmata.
--- Another possibility is that intense prayer or deep meditation could bring about a psychosomatic reaction that causes the wounds or marks to appear. This process, sometimes called "psychogenic purpura", has been investigated medically, and there is some evidence that it can actually occur.
--- Some people have secretly wounded themselves in an attempt to get attention or look pious. One well-known example was Magdalena de la Cruz (1487-1560), who finally admitted that her wounds were a hoax. In a modern case, carbolic acid was reportedly applied to the skin to create blister-like wounds.
--- Another way to create fake stigmata is to paint them onto the skin, and several people have apparently used this method. The use of painted-on markings could explain cases in which the stigmata have unusual shapes, or glow in the dark, or appear to heal without leaving any scars.
The Nazarenes
After Jesus ascended to heaven, many of his followers stayed in Jerusalem and gathered into a closely-knit group that became known as the Nazarenes. According to Acts 1:13-16, the group initially had about 120 members, including Jesus' mother Mary and all of his brothers. The two main leaders were Simon Peter and the oldest brother of Jesus, who was called James the Just. During an early meeting a man named Matthias was chosen to replace the traitor Judas Iscariot in the inner circle of the twelve primary disciples.
The Nazarenes were the original core group from which Christianity grew and spread. But initially they still considered themselves to be Jews. They prayed in the temple at Jerusalem, and they followed most of the traditional Jewish religious practices. Other people in the city regarded them as a new Jewish sect.
But the Nazarenes differed from other Jewish sects in a fundamental way, for they believed that Jesus was the Messiah. They boldly took this message into the streets of Jerusalem and soon began to attract many new converts. They also spread the message to friends and relatives who lived in other places, and within a few years small groups of believers were established in several other cities.
At first most of the new converts were other Jews, many of whom were already interested in the prophesies about the Messiah. But then the apostle Paul began to convert many non-Jews (Gentiles). This led to a controversy when some Nazarenes from Jerusalem visited a community of new believers in Antioch and told some Gentile converts there that they would have to be circumcised in order to be saved. Paul strongly disagreed with this, and he made a special trip to Jerusalem to try to resolve the issue.
When he reached Jerusalem, a meeting was held to discuss the matter. Although some of the Nazarenes argued against Paul, Peter apparently took his side. After a lengthy debate, the final decision was that Gentile converts didn't have to be circumcised, but would still have to obey the Jewish laws relating to idolatry, sexual morality, and diet. This important meeting, sometimes called the Council of Jerusalem, is described in Acts 15:1-29.
During these early years the converts in other cities regarded the Nazarenes in Jerusalem as the final authority for deciding important issues. This was mainly due to the presence of Peter, James the Just, and other original believers. They were granted a special status because they had known Jesus personally.
But Peter eventually left Jerusalem. And mostly because of Paul's activities, the number of converts in other cities grew rapidly. For these reasons, the Nazarenes began to lose their influence. As the years passed, their continued adherence to the old Jewish religious practices left them increasingly out of touch with newer believers, many of whom had Gentile backgrounds.
In 66 AD a fierce war broke out in Palestine between the Roman army and a group of Jewish rebels. The casualties were enormous, but most of the Nazarenes managed to save them-selves by abandoning their homes and fleeing from Jerusalem. According to the church historian Eusebius, many of them fled to a place called Pella east of the Jordan River. But although they escaped, they had suffered a terrible blow.
By then Christianity had begun to separate from Judaism, and the Nazarenes quickly lost any remaining influence they might have had. There is evidence that many of them never accepted Paul as a true apostle and didn't approve of some of the practices in the churches he established. Perhaps partly for this reason, they gradually became isolated from the main Christian movement, and had little effect on the subsequent history of the church.
The Nazarene Way of Life
During their years in Jerusalem, the Nazarenes sometimes called themselves followers of "The Way". By this, they meant their way of life. According to Acts 4:32-33:
All the believers were one in heart and mind. No one claimed that any of his possessions was his own, but they shared everything that they had.
In addition to their insistence on sharing, the Nazarenes put a high value on devoutness, non-violence, and a very simple lifestyle. All of these ideas could have come directly from the teachings of Jesus. Many scholars have pointed out that the Nazarenes' beliefs were similar to those of the Essenes. But theories about possible connections between the two groups are difficult to prove.
The origin of the name "Nazarenes" is uncertain. Because Jesus himself was sometimes called "the Nazarene", one frequent proposal is that the name was derived from "Nazareth". But this can't be proven, and there are reasons to doubt it. Some of the uncertainty stems from the fact that ancient writers spelled the name in several different ways, including "Nazirenes", "Nazaraeans", and "Nazoreans".
Persecution of the Nazarenes
Even in the early days, when the Nazarenes were still a small group, they were already being persecuted by the local Jerusalem authorities. The stoning of Stephen, the first Christian martyr, is starkly described in Acts 7:54-60. The threat of further executions caused others in the group to temporarily go into hiding. It was during this period that Paul (then known as Saul) got involved in the persecutions, although it isn't clear how big a role he played.
Later, during another flareup of persecution, James the son of Zebedee was put to death with a sword. Peter would have probably also been executed, but an angel came during the night and helped him escape from jail. Apparently he avoided further trouble until his later years, but finally, according to church tradition, was killed in Rome. James the Just also managed to survive the early persecutions, but was eventually killed in 62 AD.
The Fate of the Nazarenes
After they fled from Jerusalem, the Nazarenes gradually became isolated from the main Christian movement. Despite this isolation, they still managed to survive for several centuries as an independent sect. Their survival was mentioned by several later writers, including Saint Jerome, who reported that he visited a community of them in the Syrian desert in about 380 AD.
Many scholars think that another group of them survived under the name Ebionites. These Ebionites recognized Jesus as the Messiah but considered him to be of normal human parentage. They adhered to the old Jewish laws, had their own gospel, and disapproved of the teachings of Paul. For these reasons, the fourth-century Bishop Epiphanius declared them to be heretics.
There aren't any reliable reports of what finally happened to either the Nazarenes or the Ebionites. Quite possibly both groups completely died out soon after the fourth century. But a few scholars think that small communities may have survived for a longer period in remote areas. There has also been speculation that some late survivors were progenitors of medieval heretical groups such as the Cathars. But unless new information is uncovered, the final fate of the Nazarenes will remain a mystery.
The Resurrection of the Dead Saints
Readers of the gospels are often puzzled by a short passage at Matthew 27:52-53, which comes just after the description of Jesus' death on the cross. The passage reads as follows:
The tombs broke open and the bodies of many holy people who had died were raised to life. They came out of the tombs, and after Jesus' resurrection they went into the holy city and appeared to many people.
The passage says that some dead holy people returned to life and came out of their tombs, then went into Jerusalem, where many inhabitants of the city saw them. Because the King James translation refers to these resurrected people as "saints", this event is sometimes called "the resurrection of the dead saints".
Matthew 27:51 indicates that an earthquake occurred just as Jesus died, and that this was what opened the tombs of these saints. But although their bodies returned to life immediately, they apparently didn't go into Jerusalem until at least two days later, or no earlier than the first Easter Sunday.
The resurrection of these saints obviously wasn't an ordinary event. In fact it was clearly a divine action. God could have brought it about directly, or he could have simply created the conditions that finally gave rise to it. Some people have suggested that the final trigger was a supernatural power that emanated from Jesus as he died on the cross.
Scholars have looked for reports of this resurrection in other ancient writings, but no definite references to it have been found. However, some scholars do see a possible connection to ancient prophesies about a resurrection of dead saints expected to occur during the End Times. The prophesies say that all dead saints will return to life at that time so that they can take their place in a newly-created eternal Kingdom of God. Some people have suggested that the resurrection described in Matthew’s passage was a "preview" of the bigger resurrection prophesied for the End Times.
Another possible explanation for Matthew's passage relates it to a story known as the "Harrowing of Hell". According to this story, which is mentioned in the Apostles’ Creed, after Jesus died on the cross he descended to Hell and rescued the souls of all the ancient dead saints from their imprisonment there. After these rescued souls left Hell, they could have returned to their old bodies in the tombs and brought them back to life. But if this is what happened, it must have taken place very quickly, because Matthew says that the bodies were resurrected almost immediately after Jesus died.
Who Were These Resurrected Saints?
All of these resurrected saints were apparently buried in the vicinity of Jerusalem. Nothing is said about any dead saints who were buried elsewhere. The passage also doesn't identify any of the resurrected saints by name, but some later Christian writers speculated about who they might be. The suggested possibilities included Adam and Eve, Abel, Abraham, Isaiah, and various other Old Testament figures. Because the earliest followers of Jesus still considered themselves to be Jews, they would have regarded these Old Testament figures as saints.
Matthew also doesn't say what these resurrected saints did after they were seen in Jerusalem. Modern readers often assume that they went back to their tombs and died again. Such a temporary resurrection could still serve as a preview of the general resurrection prophesied for the End Times. However, the passage doesn't say that they went back to their tombs and died again, so other possibilities should be considered. Of course they probably aren't still alive on the earth somewhere. Perhaps the most likely remaining possibility is that they eventually ascended to heaven.
Were These People Really Resurrected?
The other three gospels don't mention the resurrection of these saints. Partly for this reason, many biblical scholars doubt that it really happened. They argue that such an extraordinary event, if it really occurred, would provide strong evidence for the divinity of Jesus, and therefore the other gospel writers would have also described it.
Another reason for doubt is that these resurrected saints would have created a lot of excitement when they appeared in Jerusalem, and a historian like Josephus, who wrote a detailed account of the period, probably would have said something about it. But he doesn't mention it at all.
For these reasons, many scholars believe that Matthew's passage describes a legendary story rather than a real event. It might be similar to a modern "urban legend". Of course, this raises the question of how such a story could have originated.
According to one theory, the story originated in the days immediately after the resurrection of Jesus. This would have been a time of great excitement for his followers. They believed that he was the long-awaited Messiah, and that he had come to establish a new eternal Kingdom of God on the earth. Buoyed by their high expectations, they could have viewed his resurrection as a "signal" that this new kingdom was about to be created. They could have even been looking for signs that it was beginning to appear.
One such sign would be the resurrection of the ancient dead saints. Perhaps some of Jesus' followers thought they saw resurrected saints walking around in Jerusalem during this period. If so, the original reports of these sightings might have survived in the form of a legendary story. And this legendary story might be what is preserved in Matthew's passage.
Note: Under normal circumstances, a dead body will eventually decompose to the point that its individual features are no longer recognizable. But many early Christians believed that the body of a true holy person is incorruptible, so that it doesn't decay at all, but is miraculously preserved for its eventual resurrection. This explains how long-dead saints could return to life in their original bodies.
First Witness to the Resurrection
Who was the first person to see Jesus after his resurrection? To try to answer this question, we first need to look at what each gospel says about the matter.
Gospel of John (20:1-18)
This gospel gives the most detailed description of what happened on the morning of the resurrection. It says that Mary Magdalene went to the tomb shortly before dawn and saw that it was open. Thinking that someone had moved the body, she ran and told Peter and an unnamed disciple what she had seen. These two men ran to the tomb, found it empty, and then left the area. But Mary lingered nearby and began to weep. Eventually she looked into the tomb again and saw two angels, who asked her why she was weeping. She told them that someone had moved Jesus' body, and that she didn't know where it was. Then suddenly she turned and saw Jesus himself. Here is the description of her encounter with him, as told in John 20:14-16:
At this, she turned around and saw Jesus standing there, but she did not realize that it was Jesus.
"Woman," he said, "why are you crying? Who is it you are looking for?"
Thinking he was the gardener, she said, "Sir, if you have carried him away, tell me where you have put him, and I will get him."
Jesus said to her, "Mary." She turned toward him and cried out in Aramaic, "Rabboni!" (which means Teacher).
Thus, according to this gospel, Mary Magdalene was the first person to see the risen Jesus. She didn't recognize him initially and thought he was a gardener. But when he spoke her name, she immediately knew who he was.
Gospel of Matthew (28:1-20)
This gospel also begins its account with the discovery of the empty tomb. But in this version of the story, Mary Magdalene is accompanied to the tomb by another woman who is identified as "the other Mary". After these two women reach the tomb, they see an angel who says that Jesus has risen and isn't there. The angel then instructs them to tell the male disciples that they can see Jesus in Galilee. The two women hurry off to find the male disciples, but on the way they suddenly encounter Jesus himself. He says, "Greetings", and they fall at his feet and worship him.
Thus, according to this account, Mary Magdalene and another woman also named Mary were the first eyewitnesses to the resurrection. This gospel doesn't describe any other encounters with Jesus in or near Jerusalem. But it says that the male disciples went to Galilee, (as the angel had instructed), and saw Jesus there.
Gospel of Luke (24:1-35)
According to this gospel, several women went with Mary Magdalene on her visit to the tomb, including Joanna and Mary the mother of James. After the women find the tomb empty, they suddenly see two men in shining garments standing next to them. These two men tell them that Jesus has risen and left. The women then go to the male disciples and tell them what happened at the tomb. The disciples don't believe them, but Peter goes to the tomb anyway, finds it empty, and then leaves. Thus, in this account nobody sees Jesus during the initial visits to the tomb.
But later two of his followers do encounter him during a trip from Jerusalem to a village named Emmaus. One of these followers is named Cleopas, but the other one isn't identified. As they walk toward the village, Jesus joins them and begins talking with them, but they don't recognize him. After they reach the village, they all decide to have dinner together. During the meal the two travelers suddenly recognize their companion as Jesus, but he immediately vanishes from their sight. They hurry back to Jerusalem to tell everyone what happened. When they arrive, they find the disciples gathered together talking, and saying that Jesus is alive and has appeared to Peter, though nothing is said about where or when this appearance to Peter took place.
Thus, this gospel isn't clear about who saw Jesus first. It could have been the two men who encountered him during the trip to the village, but initially didn't recognize him. Or it could have been Peter, who in the meantime had told the other disciples about an encounter of his own. In either case, this account is inconsistent with those of John and Matthew because it indicates that none of the women saw Jesus near the tomb.
Gospel of Mark (16:1-20)
The oldest known manuscripts of this gospel don't describe any post-resurrection appearances of Jesus. Partly for this reason, many scholars believe that this gospel's original ending has been lost. Whatever the case, these oldest manuscripts stop abruptly at verse 16:8, right after the discovery of the empty tomb. In the last two verses Mary Magdalene and two other women are told that Jesus has risen and is on his way to Galilee, and that his followers can see him there. Thus, if the original ending was lost, the missing part most likely described at least one appearance in Galilee but none in the vicinity of Jerusalem.
Later scribes who made copies of this gospel realized that the original ending may have been lost, and several new endings were eventually invented to take its place. The ending chosen for most modern bibles consists of twelve verses (16:9-20) known as the "Longer Ending" or "Apocryphal Addition". This ending says that the risen Jesus made his first appearance to Mary Magdalene. But this was probably copied from John's account and thus is unlikely to be an independent source of information.
The possible loss of the original ending of Mark is especially unfortunate, because many scholars think that it was the first New Testament gospel to be written.
First Corinthians (15:1-8)
In addition to what the gospels say, there is also an important passage about the resurrection in Paul's first letter to the Corinthians. This passage (15:1-8) specifically says that the risen Jesus appeared first to Peter (who Paul calls Cephas), then to the other male disciples, and then to various other people.
Paul doesn't say where he got this information, but he did know Peter, and he also met some other disciples during his trips to Jerusalem. For this reason, and also because this letter to the Corinthians was probably written at least 15 years earlier than any of the gospels, some scholars think that it may be the most reliable source of information about the resurrection.
Conclusions
Many people find these different accounts to be confusing and inconsistent. Attempts have been made to reconcile them, but this necessarily involves loose interpretations and implausible arguments. Some of the difficulties may stem from the fact that the gospels probably weren't written until at least 35 years after the events, and by then most of the original witnesses were either dead or couldn't be located. Paul's letter to the Corinthians was written earlier, but it doesn't give any specific details about the appearances it mentions.
The inconsistencies could indicate that the stories gradually changed as they passed from person to person during the intervening years. However, the common elements suggest that there were originally three basic stories about what happened on that first Easter Sunday. In one story Jesus makes an appearance to Mary Magdalene (and possibly another woman) near the tomb. In another story he appears to Peter at an unspecified place and time. And in a third story, found only in Luke, he appears to Cleopas and an unnamed companion on the road to a village called Emmaus.
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